Google
This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on Hbrary shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project
to make the world's books discoverable online.
It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject
to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books
are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover.
Marks, notations and other maiginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the
publisher to a library and finally to you.
Usage guidelines
Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the
public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing this resource, we liave taken steps to
prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.
We also ask that you:
+ Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for
personal, non-commercial purposes.
+ Refrain fivm automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine
translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the
use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help.
+ Maintain attributionTht GoogXt "watermark" you see on each file is essential for informing people about this project and helping them find
additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it.
+ Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just
because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other
countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of
any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner
anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liabili^ can be quite severe.
About Google Book Search
Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers
discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web
at|http : //books . google . com/|
^r/ji-
^w' ■ I « ■ • ■ IIH'
J
t-/,
2 c-t
^„C. ^'3.s-^
•
t t ?.
'm \
y
h,
<r <L - ''
/
j'r
NAVAL STRATEGY
NAVAL STRATEGY
COMPARED AND CONTRASTED WITH THE
PRINOIPLES AND PRACTICE OF
MILITARY OPERATIONS
ON LAND
Lectures delivebbd at U. S. Naval Wab College, Newport,
b. i., between the tears 1887 aud 1911
BY
CAPTAIN A. T. MAHAN, D.C.L., LL.D.
Snittti states Nsbi
AUTHOR OP *'TRX DTFLUKHCB OP 8BA POWSB UFOH HI8TOBT, 1660-1788,'* "THB
INPLUBHCB OP SBA POWSB UPOS THS PRBHCH REVOLDTIOS AKD
KXPXBBi'* *'THE UPB OP irBLBOB, THE BMBODIMBBT
OP THB SBA POWEB OP OBBAT BBTTAIll,**
** 8BA POWBB IB ITS BBLATI0B8
TO THB WAB OP 1812 '*
BOSTON
LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY
1911
/ ^
f
w
Copyright, 1911,
By a. T. Mahan.
M nghtt reserved
Published, November, 1911
TH« UHnrsBsmr press, gambridok, u.8.a.
PREFACE
As stated on the title-page, the text of this book is sub-
stantially that of lectures given at the Naval War College,
at various periods between the years 1887 and 1911.
The original lectures, which alone represent a methodical
treatment, however brief, are contained seriatim in seven
chapters, six to twelve inclusive. In these there has been
some modification of details, owing mainly to the lapse of
time introducing changes of conditions; but substantially
and in plan they continue as first framed.
My acknowledgments and thanks are due to the pro-
prietors and editor of the United Service Magazine (Lon-
don), for permission to reprint an article contributed to it
in 1893. The substance of this is between pages 222
and 242.
I owe thanks also to Rear Admiral Rajrmond P. Rodgers,
President of the College, and to Captain W. M9Carty
Little, of the College Staff, for facilities and assistance
constantly given.
A. T. Mahan.
October, 1911.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
Ihtroductobt
Date of origin of pieoent lectnies 1
Thdi sabsequent deyelopment 1
Changes in methods and weapons since inception 2
Changes do not affect Principles of Strategy, but the application of them 3
Three Naval Wars since first writing 4
General deyelopment of appreciation concerning Naval Strategy . • • 5
Blnstrations of the permanence of Principles 6
For due comprehension of Principles, historical Blnstratlon or personal
Experience is requisite 9
Napoleon and Nelson quoted in support 9
Wolfe*s habit of noting illustrations cited 10
Lord Wolselej quoted 10
Diyision of United States Battle Fleet between Atlantic and Pacific
condemned, by illustration of the Division of the Russian Fleet in
1904 II
History is a Record of Illustrations 12
Development of naval strategic thought in the past Twenty Tears . . 12
Illustrated in current naval practice 13
Olufltrated also by Naval Literature t . . 13
Darriens'"WarontheSea" 13
Daveluy's" Study of Naval Strategy" 13
Corbett's "England in the Mediterranean" and "England in Seven
Years' War" 13
Relation of Sherman's March to the Sea to the founding of the U. S.
Naval War College 14
Distinct methods of treating Strategy 16
Historical method preferred 16
Reciprocal effect of Principles and Illnstration 17
Close relation between National Policy and Military Preparations.
Illustrations 18
Necessity for Naval Officers to keep themselves acquainted with general
• International Conditions 20
vi CONTENTS
CHAPTER n
Historical Illustrations and Comments
The First Requisite io considering a Theatre of War 22
Illnstration : The Stadjr of the Danube Region hy the Archduke Charles
of Austria 22
The Archduke's Campaign of 1796 against Jourdau and Moreau ... 23
Importance of : 1. Concentration ; 2. Central Position ; 3. Interior Lines ;
4. Communications 25
Proposed Series of Illustrations: 1. A Purely Land Campaign; 2. A
Mixed, or Combined, Military and Naval Situation; 3. A Purely
Naval Campaign 26
Struggle between France and the Austrian Dominions of Spain and
Germany, 1630-1660 27
Central Position of France 28
Lines of Communication, Spain to Central Germany 29
Spanish Navy unable to face Dutch Navy in English Channel .... 30
Consequent Importance of Mediterranean Line by Genoa, Milan, and
Alpine Passes 30
Application of these conditions to Central Position, Interior Lines, and
Communications 31
Comparison with Line of the Danube in Germany 33
Discussions of such situations in general 35
" War a Business of Positions " 86
Plevna
Port Arthur
Toulon
Nearness a prime factor in position. Instances : Cadiz, Gibraltar, Malta,
Jamaica, Guantanamo Bay 38
Evasion by circuitous lines — Fautses Routet 38
Disastrous effect of popular apprehensions upon military dispositions . 39
France enters the Thirty Tears' War 40
French Navy transferred from Atlantic to Mediterranean 41
CHAPTER ra
Historical Illustrations and Commbrts
(Contintied)
Faulty conduct of War under Richelieu 43
Prime necessity of concentrating force. Nelson quoted 43
Application of same Principle to Ship Design 44
To Frontier Attack, and to Tactics 45
Bonaparte in Italy, 1796. Analogy to Archduke Charles in Germany
the same year 46
Attack on Flank preferred. Reason 46
CONTENTS vii
Analogy in Nayal Tactics. Trafalgar 47
Nelson's methods and reasons 48
Farragnt at Mobile 49
BatUe of the Japan Sea 49
Concentration the Principle underlying both Strategy and Tactics . . 49
Principle applied to Coast Defence and Attack 49
War of 1812 50
Military Lines diride for consideration into Three Parts 51
Application to United States Coast Lines 51
Resemblance of Florida Peninsula to that of Korea 52
Analysis of the nature of the advantage inherent in Central Position 53
One Power Standard. Two Power Standard 54
"K"and"But" 55
Napoleon before Ansterlitz
Togo before Tsushima
Archduke Charles in 1796
Fine saying of the Archduke, quoted 58
Application to proposed dirision of United States Fleet between Atlantic
and Pacific 58
Estimate of the value to be attributed to Concentration, Central Posi-
tion, and Interior Lines 59
CHAPTER rV
HiBTORiOAL Illustrations and Commbntb
( Continued)
Historical Narrative resumed at death of Richelieu, 1642 61
Policy of Mazarin. Military features 62
End of Thirty Years* War 63
Hostilities continue between France and Spain 63
England under Cromwell appears on the scene 64
Reorganization of English Navy 64
Cromwell's Policy 65
Attempted political concentration of Dutch and English Republics . . 66
Refused then by Holland, but realized under William HI 66
War between England and Holland 67
Protection of Commerce 68
Naval Events in the Mediterranean 68
Naval Events in the English Channel 71
Necessity of Concentration recognized by English 72
Prostration of Holland through English control of Channel and trade . 74
Peace between England and Holland 74
Principle of Concentration to be applied in the spirit, not in the letter
only 74
Blnstration from War between Japan and Russia 75
Application to United States Atlantic and Pacific coasts 75
via CONTENTS
CHAPTER V
Historical iLLUSTRATiom and Commbhts
(Conduded)
Necessity of Pennanent Positions to effectiye naval action 76
Sommary of Events, 1654-1689, between First Anglo-Dntch War and
general European conflict 76
French Naval Enterprise in Mediterranean prior to 1650 77
Effect npon this of entrance of English Navy in 1654 78
Influence of Port Arthur upon War between Japan and Russia ... 79
Cromwell's Attack upon Spanish West Indies 80
Subsequent Peace with France and War with Spain 80
Death of Cromwell, 1658. Peace of Pyrenees between France and
Spain, 1659 81
Permanent Decline of Spain 81
Effect of Cromwell's Policy npon position of England in Europe ... 81
Subsequent Policy of the Stuart Kings 82
Jnstiflcation of Cromwell's Policy 82
Parallel conditions to-day 82
International impotence of England under Stuart Dynasty 83
National Internal Unity essential to External Influence 84
Illustration from Thirty Tears of French History, 1622-1655 .... 85
Power of Louis XIV illustrates Internal Consolidation opposed to Inter-
national Dissennions 86
Speciflc military importance of Mediterranean, 1688-1713 86
Necessity of Permanent Positions illustrated by Mediterranean ... 87
General European Alliance against France 88
Military Plans of France 68
Consequent Significance of Mediterranean to the Allies, 1689-1713 . . 89
Contrast between this and its effect at earlier date 89
Courseof Naval Events, 1690-1696 90
Imperative necessity for Allies to have a permanent position in Medi-
terranean 92
Strategic insight of William m 93
Orders Allied Fleets to winter in Cadis instead of returning home . . 93
Effect upon Savoy and upon French operations in Catalonia .... 94
Resultant action of Louis XIV in threatening invasion of England . . 04
Disastrous effect of consequent popular apprehension in England . . 94
In absence of Allied Fleets Barcelona falls, and Savoy forsakes Alliance 95
Substantial effect produced by the two years' stay of Allied Fleet in
Mediterranean 95
Exhaustion of France 95
Strategic effect of a military position in imposing delays: American
Squadron on Lake Champlain, 1776; Mantua, 1796; Genoa, 1800;
Ladysmith, 1899; Port Arthur, 1904 95
CONTENTS ix
between France and Allies, 1697 96
Renewed War, 1708 96
Kew Political Combinations 96
Permanent influence of new war, 1702-1713 96
Death of William HI, 1702 97
Marlborough succeeds him in direction of the War 97
Marlborough's Plans 97
Summary of Eyents 98
Peace of Utrecht, 1713, by poeitions ceded, establishes Great Britain
in Mediterranean 98
Military importance of Mediterranean 99
Pazalleleffectof American Great Lakes in 181 2-18U 99
CHAPTER VI
Foundations and Prinoiplbs
Underlying intention of present lectures 100
Interest of United States in the Caribbean Sea when lectures first
written 100
Notable Subsequent Change 102
Analogy of Isthmus of Panama to Valley of Danube and to Valtelline
Passes. Of Caribbean Sea to Mediterranean 102
Influence of War with Spain upon International Relations of United
States 103
European Politics not indifferent to American Students of Strategy . . 103
Changes in European International Conditions and Relations since
1897 104
Significance of these to the United States 105
Broad significance of increased German Navy 105
Deyelopments of the Monroe Doctrine 106
The constitution of a National Fleet is a Strategic Question .... 107
Effect upon Great Britain of changes in International Conditions . . 109
Advantages of Germany and of Japan in present competitions . . . . 110
Ability of United States to protect its coasts and its external policies
dependent chiefly on naval strength 110
Growth of the ideas concerning Sea Power in last thirty years . . . Ill
The new great navies are American, German, and Japanese . . . . Ill
Development of Naval Literature coincident with recognition of Sea
Power 112
Such Development is simply the formulation of previous recognized
truths ', 112
Naval Histoxy and Biography provide the Material for formulating
Strategic Principles 114
Cause of delay in developing naval Strategic treatment 1 14
Influence of Steam 115
X CONTENTS
Formnlation of Princifdefl imperative 115
Value of lUostratioiiB : Division of Dutch aud English Navies, 1652;
Division of Rossian Fleet, 1904 ; Napoleon's Criticism of Division of
British Brest Fleet, 1805. Discussed 115
Steam has increased the significance of *' Communications " to Navies . 118
Special Object of Naval War College 119
The decisive considerations in any strategic problem are usnallj very few 1 20
The word "Key "illustrates this fact 120
Blnstration from legal profession 120
Value of knowledge of Land Warfare to naval students 121
Naval Strategy applicable in Peace as well as in War. Reason there-
for 122
niostrations of Strategy in Peace 122
Large geographical scale of naval operations 124
Recent changed method of distributing Navies 124
Necessity for this. Reasons 125
" War a Business of Positions " . . 127
Caution as to application of this truth 127
Position of Cuba 127
Position of British Fleets in Wars with France 128
Position of same as affected by present German rivalry 128
Advantage of an Advanced Position, if securely held 129
Situation of British Islands relatively to Germany an instance of ad-
vanced position 129
Raids not equivalent to interruption of '* communications " ISO
Contrasted effect of a concentration suitably stationed ISO
Advantage for advanced naval positions that they be interconnected by
land 131
Selection of positions involves consideration of intrinsic value and of
advanced situation 131
CHAPTER VII
FOUHDATlOlfS AND PrIMOIPLBS
( CmUinuid)
Three Principal Conditions affecting Strategic Value of any Position:
Situation, Strength, Resources 132
niustratiou from letter of Admiral Rodney 133
Situation the most indispensable condition 134
Circumstances affecting value of Situation 134
Radical difference underlying Land and Sea Strategy 135
Historical Instances 136
Controlling Strategic Positions rarer on Sea than on Land 138
Archduke Charles quoted 138
Strategic Positions largely determined by roads, especially by cross-
roads 139
CONTENTS xi
Illiistratioiis iiom West India Islandfl 140
Strength of PoeitionB Ul
Defensive Strength analyzed and diflcussed 141
Coast-defence Ships 146
Torpedo Vessels and Submarines 147
EffectiTe part played by a defence System of Fortification on Sea and
on Land Frontiers 148
In Sea War, the Navy is the Army in the open field 149
Defence the Foundation ; Offence the Building 150
Effects of popular apprehension 150
Beliance upon Navy for defence of seaports leads logically to numerous
small ships 151
Every proposal to use Navy for defence only, found faulty. Reason . 152
True Sense in which Navy is an instrument of Defence 152
Summary of Reasons why Navy is not proper instrument for defence
of seaports 153
Offensive Strength of seaports analyzed and discussed 153
Effect of Submarine Mines 156
Relation of Tactical Conditions to Strategy 157
Proper Position of an Outside Fleet 157
Advantage of two outlets to a port 158
Power to support distant operations of a Fleet an element of offensive
strength in seaports 159
Supreme need of Docks 161
Illustrated in Russo-Japanese War 161
Reeoozces as an element of strength in seaports 162
CHAPTER Vin
FonNDATlONS AND PrINCIPLBS
Stratboic Linbs
Various Characters of Strategic Lines 164
Numerous lines available to vessels on open Sea 165
Importance of Lines of Communication 166
Instances 167
Value of Double Lines of Retreat, or of Communication 168
Athmtic Naval Bases of United States 169
Vladivostok and Port Arthur 170
A Sea Frontier with its ports a Strategic Line 171
Movements from port to port can rarely be bel^nd shore line .... 172
Use of inland waters by Torpedo Vessels 172
Problem of uniting a Fleet when divided between several ports . . . 173
Suggestions 174
Strategic effect of off-lying obstacles 174
Strategic questions involved in distant Transmarine Possessions ... 175
xii CONTENTS
Page
Primaiy importance among these of the Battle Fleet 176
Dependence of all external podtionB npon it lt7
Military Problem of Imperial Federation 179
Analogy to that of Great Britain daring Warn of American Independ-
ence and French Reyolntion 181
Lord Kitchener qaoted 182
Application to coasts of United States 182
British naval strategic dispositions, past and present 183
Boni4>arte*s Egyptian Expedition. Analogies 183
Offensive seiznre of a Transmarine Position is followed inevitably by
defensive necessities 186
Analogy in Egyptian Expedition to Bonaparte's Campaign in Italy, 1 796 187
Also in War between Japan and Russia 188
Distant Expeditions more feasible by Sea than Land 189
Also less decisive, and more difficult to maintain 189
Conditions requisite to first success 190
Armies in the Field and Fleets at Sea more effective than Fortified
Positions 191
Nevertheless, Fortified Bases are necessary 191
Principles governing the selection of such 191
First essential military requisite of a Naval Station 195
Desirable number and character of such Stations 196
National importance of the Pacific Ocean to the United States . . . 197
Monroe Doctrine centres in Caribbean Sea 198
Maintenance of any system of external Fortified Ports depends upon the
navy 198
Proper Objective of a Navy is the Enemy's Navy 199
CHAPTER IX
FOUNDATXOMS AMD PrIMCXPLM
Distant Operations and Maritime Expeditions
Necessity of local Naval Bases on a theatre of Distant Operations . . 200
Characteristics of such Bases 200
Japanese and Russian Bases in Recent War 201
Order of importance in snch distant bases 202
Necessity of study to determine selection of bases 202
Operations of War. Object and Objective 208
Conditions essential to control of a Maritime Region 204
Operations in such distant regions a specific case of general military
operations 204
Specific feature differentiating them 205
Choice of Bases, of Objectives, and of Lines of Operation 205
niastradon of Bases : Great Britain, Austria, Russia, United States • 206
Lines of Operations and of Communications 207
CONTENTS xiii
Modem {oBtanceB of great Maritime Expeditions 208
Dependence of Boch npon naral preponderance 208
ConTojs are instances of naral protection localized 209
Effect of hostile arsenals near lines of operations, or of oommnnications 209
Two methods of protecting snch Lines 211
Advantage of more than one line of Oommnnications 21 1
Difference between Land and Sea Warfare, in control exercised bj
strong positions 212
Seasons. Exceptions. Illnstrations 213
Naval superiority essential to security of distant maritime bases . . . 213
Listances: Bonaparte in Egypt and Malta; Japan and Russia in Man-
churia 214
Consequent probable necessity of Battle 215
Question discussed whether in great maritime expeditions the Fleet and
Troops should saQ together, or successively 215
Parallel between crossing sea and crossing river 216
Major Operations and Diversions 217
Position in which Defendant Fleet should endeavor to fight Invaders on
their voyage 218
Illustrations from History 219
Necessity for sustained Oonoentration of an invading naval force. Illus-
tration from Bonaparte's Oommentaries 221
Essential change of function in Army and in Navy, after conquest of a
remote objective 222
Athenian Expedition against Syracuse, Analyzed and Discussed . . . 223
Essential features of Plan of Naval Operations proposed to Syracuse . 228
Analogy to Santiago in 1898, and to Port Arthur in 1904 229
Bonaparte's Egyptian Expedition, Analyzed and Discussed 230
Position of French in Egypt essentially Defensive 231
Effect of Naval Inferiority 231
Use to be made of an Inferior Navy under such conditions 232
Favorable effect of the Battle of the Nile upon British Naval dispositions 238
Comparison between the two Maritime Expeditions discussed and
certain cases of Land Warfare 240
The influence of a Flanking Position rests less in the Works than in
the Garrison, or in the Fleet, sheltered 241
CHAPTER X
Foundations and Pbinciplbs
Operations op War
Strategic use of a naval force after conquest of a distant Maritime
Position 243
Illustration from Land Warfare. Napoleon's Instructions to Marmont,
1812 244
xiv CONTENTS
Gigantic nayal diyenion planned by Napoleon, 1804 246
Compariiion with conditions of Egyptian Expedition, 1798 247
Relations of Navy to Home Defence 248
Sea-Coast Fortresses primarily offensive in fonction ; not defensive . . 249
niostration. United States Squadron under John Rodgers, 1812 . . . 249
Determination of proper constitution of a national navy. Germany's
Definition 250
Advantage of an advanced "Front "of operations 251
Illustrations: British Navy, 1793-1815; Bonaparte on the Adige,
1796 251
Strong Places occupied in both instances 252
Application to Caribbean Sea 253
Lines of British strong places to Suez and to Panama 254
Direction of operations in Naval War determined by position of Enemy's
Fleet and Naval Bases 254
Enemy's organized force the primary objective of operations .... 255
The usual great predominance of British Navy in modem times has
caused illustrations of Naval Strategy to be deficient in number . . 255
Consequent faulty expression : " The Sea brooks only one Mistress *'. . 256
Incorrectness of this shown by instances 256
Fluctuations in Mediterranean campaigns, 1793-1798 256
Renewed instance in 1799 261
Mediterranean Campaigns demonstrate need of local bases 261
Likewise Suffren's Campaigns in East Indies 261
Balance of Naval Forces in War of American Independence .... 262
Predominance at Sea necessary for attack on a fortified naval base . . 263
Effect of Distance. Consequent need of advanced bases in distant
operations 264
Attack upon an Enemy's Base may be the best defence for one's own
local interests 265
Embarrassment caused to a Battle Fleet by the presence of Supply
Vessels 266
Necessity for untiring pursuit of a retreating Enemy 266
Instances of ill-effect of lax pursuit 267
Relations of Japanese and Russian Fleets before Tsushima summarized 268
Conduct of a Pursuit when sight of chase has been lost 270
Attack upon a fortified base a means to compel an Enemy's Fleet to
battle 271
Gibraltar. Trincomalee 272
Embarrassment of an assailant Fleet when confronted by two hostile
ports, suitably placed and fortified 272
A single port with widely separated approaches resembles two ports.
Vladivostok 272
Desirable positions for battle 273
Procedure for superior navy confronted with two widely separated hostile
bases 273
CONTENTS XV
Procedure of a navj whooe sncceBses, with conBeqaent lengthened lines
of commanication, hare entailed loss of superiority 274
Front of Operations to be maintained as far in advance as practicable . 274
Instances : Bonaparte on Adige, 1796; British at Corsica, 1794-1796 . 275
Arrest of Progress : How to be utilized 276
Procedare of a Fleet reduced to the Defensiye 277
" Defence the Stronger Form of War/' discussed 277
Enterprises of Rozhestvensky and Cervera classified as Offensive . . . 278
Disadvantage of Defensive in that it prompts to dissemination of force 279
Elements essential to a serious defence 280
Advantage of national nearness to the positions to be defended . . . 280
Part borne bj strong places in a defensive campaign 281
Fortified Positions in a given region should be neither too many, nor
too few 282
Especially necessary to maintenance of national control in a remote
maritime region 283
Should be independent of protection by Navy 283
Embarrassment of a Fleet charged with covering important but defence-
less positions. Illustration 284
Bonaparte and Mantua, 1796. Analogy to an external Maritime Theatre
of War 285
Mantua and Bonaparte respectively illustrate Defensive and Offensive
as Forms and Methods of War < 285
Difference in Control of strong places over movements of armies and
of fleets. A Question of Communications 286
Bonaparte at Mantua compared with Nelson at Copenhagen .... 286
Movements of Betreating and Pursuing Armies in the field ..... 287
Analogies in Maritime Warfare drawn from Nelson's career .... 288
Movements of Inferior Fleet when in presence of an advancing superior
enemy 289
Fleet and fortified ports to be considered as two parts of one whole . . 290
Bianagement of an Inferior Fleet, defending a Maritime Region, and
resting upon Fortified Harbors 291
In such cases, the method of the Fleet of the defensive is to take the
offensive 293
Blnstration: John Rodgers' Squadron in 1812 293
Enemy's communications and external interests indicate the objective
of such operations 294
Clamor of Interests for protection. The '* Flying Squadron " in 1898 . 295
"Displacement of Force" 295
Quotation from Daveluy 295
The Problem, to convert Inferiority into Superiority 296
Japan and Russia 297
Value of Experience in applying Principles 297
Real Experience not confined to Personal Experience 297
Quotations from Archduke Charles and from Napoleon 297
xvi CONTENTS
Comment on these qaotations 298
The Condnct of War not a Science, bnt an Art 299
Contrast between Science and Art 299
Maxims of War. Quotation from Jomini 300
Reflections 300
Apothegm of Napoleon 801
CHAPTER XI
Appuoation to thb Guur of Mxxico and thb Cuubbban Sba
This Study of Golf and Caribbean assumes equality of Naval Force
between opponents 302
Study, therefore, one of Positions only 302
Necessity to define the limits of a strategic theatre studied 302
Also, of considering decisive natural features 302
Reasons determining the limits of theatre now under consideration . . 303
Two principal points of interest, the Mouth of the Mississippi and the
Isthmus of Panama 303
Political considerations affecting conditions 305
Commercial considerations in International Politics 306
Boundaries of theatre under discussion 308
Entrances to it 308
Military importance of Straits and other Waterways 309
Commanding military Position of Jamaica 310
Comparatiye military unimportance of Gulf of Mexico west of Yucatan
and the Biississippi 311
Lines of Reference for proposed study 312
Points of Strategic Importance enumerated 313
Acquisitions of the United States after War with Spain 314
Military effbct of these 815
Discussion of the relative value of the enumerated Points, as regards
their positions 315
Effect of the Florida Peninsula 316
Positional value of Key West 317
Analogies to be observed between the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific
CoasU of the United States 319
Positional influence of Long Island and Sound 320
Disposition of a navy having Two fortified Bases on same coast . . . 320
Discussion continued of positional value of enumerated Strategic Posi-
tions in Gulf and Caribbean 321
Continuous Obstacle to passage of vessels presented by Cuba and Haiti 323
Consequent mUitary importance of the one break at the Windward
Passage 323
Parallel Instances 323
Command of such passages secured by a competent navy resting on an
adjacent Base 325
CONTENTS xvii
Inflaence of a Fleet so controlling Windward Fassage npon a hostile force
attempting to operate at the Isthmns 326
Best positions for controlling Windward Passage. Santiago, Gnanta-
namo, and Jamaica contrasted in this respect 327
Importance of communications, especially for coal in contemporary
Nayal War 328
Positional military effect of Coba and Haiti analyzed 328
Military influence of the United States at the Isthmns wonld be nullified
by possession of Cuba by an enemy of equal naral force 331
Consequent inference as to necessary size of United States Nary . . . 332
Support to such a navy given by Key West, Guantanamo, and Cnlebra 332
Position of Havana superior in control to that of Santiago and of
Guantanamo 333
Mutual support of Havana and Santiago owing to land communication 333
Strategic and Tactical Characteristics of Seaports 334
Harbors of refuge on Cuban Coast, both north and south, between
Santiago and Havana 335
Cienfuegos considered, strategically and tactically 335
Foul ground about Cienf ugoe often advantages for defence by Torpedo
Vessels and Submarines 336
Contrasted in this respect with Heligoland 336
Heligoland, strategic value and tactical dispositions 337
Ports very dose to each other should be comprised in a single scheme
of defence 338
Bahama Banks and Channel considered strategically 338
British use of Bahama Channel in attack upon Havana, 1762 .... 339
Close of discussion of military features of Cuba, as distinguished from
its strategic relations to other parts of Caribbean and Gulf . . . 339
CHAPTER Xn
The Gulf of Mexico and Caxibbsan Sba
( Concluded)
Consideration of the Extension of Cuban Influence over Caribbean by
naval power 340
Three Principal Centers of operations in the Caribbean 340
Extent of control conferred by possession of Cuba alone, granted
adequate naval force 340
Measures necessary to extend control to Mona Passage 340
Control of Mona Passage to be exercised by cruisers only 341
Blnstration of effect of leaving Windward Passage unguarded, drawn
from War with Spain, 1898 341
Strategic effect of wireless telegraphy 343
Positions suitable for controlling Mona Passage 343
Lines of sea communications should not be too long 344
xviii CONTENTS
Effect npon question of commniiicationB produced bj the acquiBition of
GnaDtanamo and Cnlebra 344
CoDseqaent local advantag^e of United States over European countries 345
Policy of acquiring remote naval stations. Hong Kong. Kiao Chau.
Port Arthur. Gibraltar 345
True military policy of United States as to ports in Haiti. Instances
of Malta and Port Arthur 346
Influence of Cuba over the Gulf and Caribbean summarized .... 346
Three principal objects to be controlled in the Carribean : 1. Entrance ;
2. IMndpal objectives of commerce or war ; 3. Transit from entrances
to objectives 347
Discussion in detail of these objects 348
General discussion of question of transit in ocean or narrow seas . . . 351
Poiuts of departure and arrival considered with reference to their re-
spective strategic significance 352
Ulnstrations from history. Nelson. Togo 353
Effect of British methods npon Napoleon's combinations 354
Effect of nearby seaports npon lines of communication 354
Jamaica contrasted in this respect with Cuba 355
With the lesser Antilles 355
Cuba with the Antilles 355
Predominant positional value of Jamaica 3.56
Deduction to be made from this value owing to distance from supports 357
Advantage of Cuba in this respect 358
Result of these disadvantages to Jamaica 359
Danger attending an attempt to combine forces starting from two far
separated positions 360
Instance: Russia in War with Japan 361
Strategic advantages of Cuba as regards her Communications .... 361
Corresponding disadvantage of Jamaica 362
Value of fortified ports instanced by Jamaica 362
Jamaica affords an illustration of the interest of the United States in
European international conditions 363
Estimate of the value of the Lesser Antilles as bases for operations in
the Carribean 363
Conclusions as to the comparative strategic values of Cuba, Jamaica, and
the Lesser Antilles 365
End of General Discussion of strategic features of the Caribbean . . 367
Specific Application to the United States' interests in the Caribbean . 367
Method pursued in this application 367
Contrasts between 1911 and 1887, the date of the first writing .... 367
Close connection between strategy and international relations .... 368
Contrast between international and naval conditions in 1887 and 191 1 . 368
Contrast between positions held by the United States in the Gulf and
Caribbean in 1687, and in 1911 372
Positional importance of Key West 374
•
CONTENTS xix
Page
Weaknessof the United States' base on the Golf as stated in 1887 . . 375
Remedy then indicated 376
Changes since 1887, affecting adyantageonsly the influence of the United
States in the Caribbean 377
Development of Key West in this interval 377
Advantages of Gnantanamo and Kej West contrasted 378
Their relations : of mntnal support, and as affecting operations, offensive
and defensive 379
Strategic effect of a fleet resting on Gnantanamo as a centre, with
supports at Key West and Culebra 380
Comparative ineffectiveness of Raids, whether on land or sea .... 380
Summary of the effect of the changes of tenures in the Caribbean, in the
past twenty years 381
Positive and negative effect upon naval operations due to introduction
of Steam 381
Illustration of requirements of modem naval strategy afforded by the
Caribbean Sea and the Isthmus of Panama 381
Relation of the Isthmtis and Canal to mutual support of the Atlantic
and Pacific coasts 382
The Caribbean Sea the Key to the Atlantic and Pacific 382
CHAPTER Xni
Discussion of tbb Russo-Japanbsb Was
Yalue of the subject of this chapter to Naval Strategy 383
Errors and defects elicit fuller material for illustration of principles than
successes do 383
Reasons and Instances 384
Russian conduct of the war, therefore, first chosen for discussion . . . 384
"Fortress Fleet "and "Fleet in Being" 385
Correct method of dealing with opposing conceptions 385
" Compromise" and " Adjustment" discussed, in relation to ship designs
and to campaign plans 386
Essential characteristics of " Compromise " 387
* Exdusiveness of Purpose " the mental opposite of *' Compromise " . . 387
Illustration, from opposite systems of Mountain and River Defedee . . 388
Necessity for precision in thought, and in use of words 389
Precise meaning of "Combination" 390
Impression produced by the word " Compromise " 390
The Armored Cruiser a compromise 391
" Fortress Fleet " a RuRsian conception 391
Illustration : Port Arthur and Vladivostok 391
General effect of this conception upon Russian practice 392
Russian national bias towards defensive 393
XX CONTENTS
"Fortress Fleet ** and "Fleet in Being" represent, respectiyely* defen-
sive and offensive ideas 393
Fftrticular effect of the Russian conception upon the method of:
1. Assembling the fleet in the Far East 393
2. In distributing it there, when aMembled 394
Warning herein against the distribution of United States Battle Fleet
between Atlantic and Pacific 395
Relative strategic valnee of Port Arthur and Vladivostok in this War . 396
Characteristically defensive attitude and action of Russian Fort Arthur
fleet 397
Ineffective result 398
Position at Vladivostok would indicate offensive purpoise 398
"Fleet in Being" theory. Probable influence upon Rozhestvensky's
action . 398
Non-acceptance by Japanese indicated by their general course .... 399
The risk is not ignored, yet accepted 400
Military " Security " not identical with Peace security 400
"Possible "not the military equivalent of "actual" 401
A successful raid not the equivalent of communications cut 402
Capture at sea of a Japanese siege train 402
Similar mishap to Bonaparte before Acre 402
Effect of the Russian conception of a Fortress Fleet upon the manage-
ment of the Port Ajrthur division 403
Discussion of the management of that division on its attempted escape
from Port Arthur, August 10, 1904 404
Opposing conditions: to be harmonized, not by compromise, but by
adjustment 405
Sayings of Nelson applicable to the case 406
Compromise in the Russian action between ideas of escape and fighting 407
Vicious result 407
Kamimura's Action with Russian cruisers, August 14 407
Diacussion of proper management of the Russian division at Vladivostok 408
CHAPTER XIV
Discussioir OF thb Russo-Japanbsb War
{Concluded)
Rozhestvensky's conduct of his division 409
Singleness of conception the standard of measurement 409
Enters the strategic theatre of the naval war 409
Embarrassments of Rozheetvensky 410
Statements from Semenoff's "Rasplata" 410
Question as to amount of coal carried when starting on final stage . . 411
Effect upon Rozhestvensky of warnings from St Petersburg . . . . 411
Effect of Port Arthur mismanagement upon Rozheetvensky *8 prospects 412
CONTENTS xxi
General militaxy lesson dedaoed 412
Qaestion of a snrrender; when jastified 413
Command of the sea the decisive and unifying consideration in this war 413
Bozhestvensky's prohlem, therefore, essentially that of the Russian
Port Arthur fleet 414
Inferences as to proper procedure deducihle from this consideration . .414
Essential requirement to obtain battle under favorable conditions . . 414
Bozhestvensky's course of procedure 415
Lack of singleness of aim 416
Indications 417
Contrast with Ranke's remark concerning William III of England . .417
Specific application to Roihestvensky's problem 417
The question of the supply vessels 419
Perplexity between opposing requirements. Compromise and Adjust-
ment 419
Discussion of Bozhestvensky's course 420
Illustrative quotation from Lanfrey's Napoleon 421
Japanese Naval Strategy 421
Perplexing and harassing conditions encountered 421
Necessity not to risk battleships, unless for a decisive object 422
Bisk actually assumed in the general plan of campaign 422
Measures to obtain control of sea, by the navy numerically inferior . . 422
Singleness of aim observable for this object. Primary measures . . . 423
Subsequent procedure evinces the same unity of conception 424
Tactical measures, to insure the strategic purpose of controlling the
hostile fleet 425
Strategic success of these measures by thwarting Bussian escape to
Vladivostok 426
Strat^c and other reasons for Kamimura^s position in Straits of
Tsushima 426
General correctness of Japanese procedure 427
Light shed by it on the "Fleet in Being "theory 428
Necessity for taking risks 430
Napoleon quoted 430
Nelson quoted 431
CHAPTER XV
Bblatioks oy Coast Fortiyications to Natal Stbatbot
Seacoast Fortresses on border line between military and naval . . . 432
Consequent inevitable clash of opinions 432
Analysis of the functions of fleets and fortresses in mixed naval and
military operatiouB 433
In such operations, the function of sea-coast fortress, by harboring fleets,
is essentially offensive 434
xxii CONTENTS
Consequent necessitj for fortification on the land side 435
Ships at a disadvantage contending against forts 435
In remote seas, coast fortresses are necessary even to a supreme naval
power 436
Gibraltar, Alexandria, Malta 436
Strategic effect of several harbors on the same coast 437
Necessity of coast fortresses on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the
United States 438
Inflaence upon the moyements of a fleet due to the security of its bases 438
Determinative influence of Fort Arthur upon the war between Japan
and Russia 439
Strategic conditions possible to be produced by similar use of Vladivostok 439
Conditions resulting from stationing Russian fleet at Port Arthur in-
stead of at Vladivostok 441
The fleet there subservient to fortress, in accordance with mistaken
principle 441
Russian indisposition to offensive naval action 441
Imperative necessity for Japan to destroy the Russian fleet, before the
arrival of reinforcement 442
Effect of this necessity upon the land campaign 442
Russian plan of campaign on land 443
Comparison with the action in 1 797 of the Archduke Charles, commended
by Bonaparte 443
The tenure of Port Arthur an essential feature of Russian plan . . . 444
Delay obtained important, even though Port Arthur ultimately fell . . 444
Comparison with Genoa in 1880 445
The Russian plan a true combination : Two parts, but one action . . 445
Causes of failure 445
Navies needed by nations that have little shipping engaged in foreign
commerce. Russia and United States 446
External interests not limited to commerce and navigation 446
In a representative government, maritime interests afford legislative
support to a navy 447
Oversea interests and problems of the United States 447
INDEX 449
LIST OF MAPS AND PLANS
I Plan, illustrating advantages of central position • . Page 34
II Strategic sitoation at Plevna, 1877 << 86
in Bonaparte's central position at Castiglione, 1796 " 46
IV Campaign in Germany, June to October, 1796 . . << 58
y Dutch and English naval movements in Medi-
terranean, 1653-1654 ^ 70
VI Dutch and English in English Channel, 1652-1653 . " 72
VII Map of Central and Western Europe, illustrating
campaigns, 1630-1713 " 94
Vni Athenian expedition against Syracuse, b.c. 415 . . << 230
IX Map of Spain and Portugal, illustrating situation in
1812, with march and retreat of Sir John Moore
in 1808-1809 « 248
X Map of Mediterranean, to illustrate naval cam-
paigns, 1793-1798 "260
XI Map of Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea ... « 382
XII Plan, showing opposing methods of defending several
passes, or fords « 388
XIII Scene of Naval War between Japan and Bussia " 426
, '
NAVAL STRATEGY
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY
THE lectures on Naval Strategy, which in re»
vised and expanded form are to be read before
yon during the present Conference of the
College (1909), were written first in 1887;
being used in tiie session of that autumn and again in
1888. Upon this followed the dissolution of the College
as a separate institution by Secretary Whitney ; but both
at the Torpedo Station, with which the College was tempo-
rarily merged, and again after its restoration to distinct
existence by Secretary Tracy in 1892, the lectures have
continued to be read from year to year up to the present,
either by myself or by another officer.
From time to time, during this period, substantial addi-
tions have been made to the text, but there was no attempt
to recast the substance of the lectures. The fittmework
continued as at first, — a statement of principles. It was
chiefly in illustration, either from history, or from a recon-
sideration of contemporary political conditions, that addi-
tion or change was made. All these modifications, also,
were occasional, even casual. When a thought occurred
as apt, it was jotted down ; but at no time was methodical
revision undertaken, nor would it have been now save for
the suggestion, first, of Rear Admiral Luce, the father of
the College, and afterwards of Rear Admiral Merrell,
2 NAVAL STRATEGY
president of the College in 1908, when this revision was
begun.
From first writing to formal revision, therefore, twenty-
one years elapsed; the term from birth to majority.
During that time the growth of matter in the lectures was
confined to^ such incidental development as has been stated
above. The attempt at systematic revision, now to be
made, prompts naturally some reflection upon the changes
in conditions in the intervening period, by which the
conduct of war has been affected.
The most notable of these changes are external to the
subject of Naval Strategy in itself; and necessarily sa
They affect it much; but they do so from the outside.
Based as Naval Strategy is upon fundamental truths,
which, when correctly formulated, are rightly called prin-
ciples, these truths, when ascertained, are in themselves
unchangeable ; but it by no means follows that in elucida-
tion and restatement, or by experience in war, new light
may not be shed upon the principles, and new methods
introduced into their application. This will constitute
development ; alike in the practice of Naval Strategy, and
in that statement of its laws and principles which we call
theory. The physical sciences supply us here with apt
analogies. The laws governing them, for example elec-
tricity, are immutable ; but, in the application of the laws,
the lifetime of a generation testifies how great modification
and progress are possible. They are possible, and are
effected, through many minds acting upon them, and
through numerous experiments being made; the analogy
to which, in our profession of war, is the experience of
warfare.
It seems appropriate here to mention, if only incidentally,
certain changes in the weapons with which war is waged.
Especially to be noted are the disappearance of the ram
from consideration, as a weighty factor in tactics ; and, on
INTRODUCTORY 8
the other hand, the progress of the submarine, the im-
mensely increased range of the automobile torpedo, and the
invention of wireless telegraphy. In 1887, the effective
range of the torpedo was reckoned at little over five hun-
dred yards ; the submarine, although a well-developed con-
ception of long standing, had scarcely come to be taken into
account as a practical factor ; and wireless telegraphy was
unheard of, — at least by the public. In the very first
course of lectures delivered by me at the College, in 1886,
before these now under consideration were begun, I sug-
gested, as a possibility for a fleet blockading the United
States coast, that the separate squadrons, say before New
York, the Delaware, and the Chesapeake, could be kept in
communication by a submarine cable.^ That was probably
practicable ; but the same end is now assured much more
quickly, more readily, and more certainly by the wireless.
On the other hand, the submarine and the greater range
of the torpedo will place a far greater strain on blockaders,
and compel them to keep at a much greater distance.
These consequences will not change the principles of
strategy, but they will affect the application of it. An
illustration of this has been afforded by the Japanese
battleships taking position sixty miles from Port Arthur,
which they were watching, at the Elliott Islands, and by
the elaborate provision made against torpedo attack even
there ; while other measures insured their probably reach-
ing the scene betimes, if the enemy undertook to come out.
As to the effect of wireless, Togo could await Rozhestvensky
where he did, at anchor, because wireless assured him of
the shorter line in order to reach the point of interception.
Could he have known of the enemy's approach only
through a scouting system which, though itself equally
good, was dependent upon flags or lights for transmitting
information, he might have had to keep nearer the line of
1 •< Inflneiice of Sea Power upon Hiitoij," p. 86.
4 NAVAL STRATEGY
the enemy's route, at the probable disadvantage of remam*
ing at sea. This does not affect the well-recognized,
ancient, strategic principle of the value of interior lines ;
but it does seriously modify its application, and appears
to me a new confirmation of Jomini's dictum that changes
in weapons affect practice, but not principles.
As contributions to development, neither experience of
war, nor the treatment of war by professional writers, has
been wanting to the twenty-one years now immediately
under consideration. In the matter of experience there
have been three wars, in whic^ navies have borne an active
part: between China and Japan, in 1894; between the
United States and Spain, in 1898 ; and between Japan and
Russia, in 1904-1905. Equally obvious, although not
equally on the surface, may be cited the war between Great
Britain and the Boer Republics in Africa. The British
Navy, as navy, did not fire a gun ; but, in the apparent tem-
per of Europe, the decisive superiority of the British fleet
to any probable combination against it assured the control of
the sea, and with it the necessary transportation of force,
beyond chance of interruption. We have but to consider
the recent revelations of German naval progress, and their
effect upon British feeling, in order to realize what the
anxieties of Great Britain would be a few years hence,
with a like war on her hands, and the German navy what
it promises then to be. Naval Strategy is being elucidated,
and is developing ; but we are not yet in sight of the time
when it will be antiquated.
A proof that it is still in the vigor of its prime, and an
early prime at that, is to be found in the change in the
distribution of navies which has taken place since these
lectures were first written. We all recall — there is
scarcely one here so young as not to recall — the distribu-
tion of our own fleet twenty years ago: the European
squadron; the Asiatic squadron } the Pacific squadron,
INTRODUCTORY 5
etc This was no specialty of the United States, but was
reflected in all the great services. Police duty, it was
called, and quite accurately ; for the distribution was that
of police, not that of a military organization calculated for
military use. So American ships, and those of other nar
tions, were dotted singly around the world, in separate
ports ; with single beats, like that of a policeman.
How changed present conditions, how entirely concen-
tration— which is military — has taken the place of disper-
sion, it is needless to insist. This is an effect of Naval
Strategy, adapted to changes in conditions ; but it is fair,
in drawing attention to the change, to repeat that the
principles of Naval Strategy have not altered. They have
merely received elucidation by experience and by reflection.
Men's minds have turned — it will be more accurate to
say, have returned — to ideas and practices which were
familiar enough to our predecessors, who had been to
school to War itself; but which, in the absence of that
most excellent instructor, had lapsed out of mind. This
return has been due partly to the wars we have mentioned ;
partly to obvious changes in international relations; but
largely also, beyond question, to the appreciation of the
bearing which the sea and the control of it have in war, and
to the consequent consideration — reflection — how best to
use naval power, a mental process which this recognition
of its value has prompted and sustained.
Such use of naval power is naval strategy, whether
applied in peace or war; and the study of naval strategy,
systematically, began here at the Naval War College.
There was plenty of naval strategy before ; for in war the
oommon sense of some, and the genius of others, sees and
properly applies means to ends; and naval strategy, like
naval tactics, when boiled down, is simply the proper use
of means to attain ends. But in peace, as in idleness, such
matters drop out of mind, unless systematic provision is
6 NAVAL STRATEGY
made for keeping them in view. For this purpose this
College was founded; and if it had produced no other
i^esult than the profound realization by naval officers of
the folly of dividing the battle-fleet, in peace or in war, it
would by that alone have justified its existence and paid
its expenses. It is known that the decision of the General
Board, that it was inexpedient to divide the battle fleet
between the two oceans, was largely influenced by the ex-
perience of the war games played here. I had this from
the late Admiral Sperry, whose recent death the Navy
still deplores. It is well to remember continually that the
Senate of the United States, in the year 1909, adopted a
recommendation to the President for the division of the
present battle-fleet between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts.
So distributed, the division in each ocean would have been
decisively inferior to a foreign battle-fleet there present ;
to which fleet the two would have been equal or superior,
if united. No more convincing instance exists, to my
knowledge, of the need of statesmen and people to know
something about the A, B, C of Naval Strategy ; for this
principle, of concentration, is the A, B, C. Like the A, B
of the Greeks, which gave its name to the whole of their
alphabet and ours, concentration sums up in itself aU the
other factors, the entire alphabet, of military efficiency in
war. In another way, Napoleon expressed this in a notable
saying: *^ Exclusiveness of purpose is the secret of great
successes. '* Exclusiveness of purpose means concentration
of the will upon one object to the exclusion of others.
There is thus a concentration of mental and moral outiook,
of resolution, as real as the physical concentration of dis-
posable forces ; and when the moral prepossession exists in
a military man the physical concentration will follow, as
surely as any effect follows upon its cause.
To illustrate the permanence of considerations affecting
naval strategy, considerations which are not so much
INTRODUCTORY 7
principles as the outflow of principles, bearing to principles
the relation which fruit bears to its tree, three incidents
may be cited, which, though widely separated in time, and
in superficial conditions, are closely related through the
principle common to them all
1. Nelson, over a hundred years ago, on his last visit to
England, when the public mind was greatly excited about
an anticipated action between a British fleet under Calder
and a much superior hostile body, said, ^^This I freely
venture, that, when they shall have beaten Calder, they
will give England no further trouble this year." What he
meant was, that the enemy as well as Calder would be re-
moved from the board, and that Great Britain's reserve
forces would still dominate the situation.
2. Nearly ninety years afterward, at the opening of the
College session in 1892, 1 had occasion, with reference to
the obsolescence of ships of war, to quote a then contem-
porary opinion, which I believe to have been perfectly
just. The quotation ran thus: The last expression of
foreign professional opinion, concerning these so-called
obsolete ships, is that, in the later stages of a war, when the
newest ships have undergone their wear and received their
hammering, the nation which then can put forward the
laigest reserve of ships of the older types will win.
8. This leads by a direct line of precedent to a contem-
porary instance, an interesting illustration of an historical
series, cohering in teaching, from Nelson's seventy-fours
to to-day's Dreadnoughts. In the excited debate of March,
1909, in the British Parliament, concerning German naval
rivalry, it was assumed on all hands that the number of
German Dreadnoughts would nearly equal that of British
three years later. On this menacing fact there was general
agreement, although estimates differed in detail. But, to-
wards the end of the debate, the Prime Minister asserted,
and in my opinion justly, that though in Dreadnoughts
8 NAVAL STRATEGY
alone the forces might be perilously near equality in num-
ber, the great superiority of Great Britain in her second
line of ships would yet secure her command of the sea.
For, when the two fleets of Dreadnoughts parted, no mat-
ter which won, they, like Calder and Villeneuve in 1805,
would be removed from the board for the time being, —
Nelson's ^^ this year," — and the reserve would come into
play.
The principle from which the same conclusion flowed at
these three successive epochs is that of keeping a superior
force at the decisive point; expressed in the homely phrase
of getting there first with the most men. This again is con-
centration, timely concentration ; the A, B, C, of strategy,
moving on to the D, E, F. The value of a reserve consti-
tuted the decisive &ctor in the three estimates quoted. A
reserve, if correctly constituted in numbers and in position,
enables you at a critical moment to be first on hand with
the largest force; to concentrate j at the decisive period of a
battle or of a campaign. It is one method among many
to insure superiority of numbers, each method adapted to
its particular conjuncture. The consideration of a reserve
enforces a judicious abstinence from *^ scrapping " vessels
prematurely, a process which by its effect on a campaign
is strategical in its character. If the Russians in the late
war with Japan had properly mastered and applied the
function of a reserve, if their national method of naval
reasoning had not been utterly vitiated by their prevalent
theories of a fortress-fleet, they at Port Arthur wouldx have
reasoned as did Nelson in 1805: When Togo shall have
wiped out the Port Arthur division he will be in no con-
dition to do further harm for some time, and Rozhestvensky
can proceed safely. The clear duty of the Port Arthur di-
vision was an engagement so desperate as to leave the field
clear for the reserves. Japan had none ; Russia had. If
ever a nation took its fortune in both hands and threw it
INTRODUCTORY 9
overboard, Bussia did 80 in the late war with Japan ; and by
Russia is meant, not the helpless, irresponsible mass of the
population, but the men who in Russia bore to the govern-
ment the same relation that some of those here present to-
day may bear some time to the Government of the United
States. To such men was due the &ilure of Russia ; and
in consequence the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
by Austria, through the inability of Russia to assert her-
self. This weakness of Russia, traceable to feeble naval
management five years before, has relieved Germany from
the menace of Russia on her eastern frontier, and thus has
aided that growth of the German Navy which tends to
revolutionize international conditions in both hemispheres.
It is trite to remark that a bare assemblage of principles,
although useful to an expert, to steady him in moments of
doubt or perplexity, can serve little to a novice, who has
not clothed them with illustrations drawn from personal
experience; or, as in the above instances, from history,
which is the experience of others, recorded for our use.
To a man so unequipped, principles, however sound, are
mere statements resting on external authority, unsupported
by the inner conviction and appreciation which alone sup-
ply strength in the hour of need. The situation at Copenha-
gen, wrote Nelson at a certain moment, looks to the novice
in war more formidable than it is. That is the statement, and
the illustration, of personal experience applied to a present
condition and problem. It is a statement, general in char-
acter, of the intuitive ability which practice gives to size up
a situation. The French call it c<mp ffoeil — at a glance.
Napoleon has said : On the field of battle the happiest in-
spiration— again coup ffcsil — is often only a recollection.
This is a testimony to the value of historical illustration,
which is simply recorded experience ; for, whether the rec-
ollection be of what some other man did, or whether it be
of some incident one's self has seen and recalls, it draws
10 NAVAL STRATEGY
upon the past ; and that, too» not in a general way, but by
specific application to an instant emergency, comprehended
at a glance, just because it is familiar.
The two sayings complement each other. Nelson affirms
the value of experience — which is History in the making —
to develop the faculty of quickly and accurately estimating
a situation. Napoleon states the value of History — which
is experience recorded — in supplying precedents, available
for particular use in a particular emergency. One remark is
general, the other specific. Corbett, in his ^^ Seven Tears'
War," a work I commend heartily to you, notes the careful
comments which Wolfe, the conqueror of Quebec, made
upon the military movements at which he was present as a
subordinate ; preserving the record of his own experience
to sustain him in his future and triumphant career as com-
mander-in-chief. But the man who thus records his own
observations has the temper which collects observations
from history also ; the temper of the student. When Por-
ter's flotilla was caught above the &lls of the Red River,
in 1864, by the lowering of the stream, he was fortunate in
having at hand men who had had experience in similar
conditions. The building of the dam, and the consequent
saving of the vessels, was not due to inspiration, but to
experience and recollection.
Principle and illustration thus react, the one upon the
other, and this interaction shows the necessity of both.
The man who possesses the principle is able at a glance to
understand the illustration ; to appreciate its value. In a
paper on Naval Strategy, by Admiral Luce, published by
our Naval Institute, he cites the following words of Lord
Wolseley, writing about the American War of Secession :
** I am struck throughout the whole story of the minor oper-
ations of this period by the iUtutratiani they afford of the
regularity with which the old principles of war assert their
supremacy " ; and he specifies two instances, saying, ^^ Both
INTRODUCTORY U
failed, 0$ might have been predicted.^ On the other hand,
the man who, with the principle in his possession, sees for
the first time an incident of war, an illustration, thenceforth
holds the principle more firmly; because he understands it
better. The principle" that fire bums is better understood
by a burnt child after he has received the illustration of
being burned; while the man who profits by his observation
of the effects of burning upon another man shows the value
of intelligent notice of what gfoes on around him. There
is such a thing as seeing another come to grief, yes, even to
destruction, without being one whit wiser yourself, because
you do not understand how it happened ; and you do not
understand, either because you do not see the principle he
has violated, or because you miss the application of it in
his case, and consequently to your own.
To illustrate : When the Senate passed the recommenda-
tion to divide our battle-fleet between our Atlantic and
Pacific coasts, not four years had elapsed since the Russian
fleet had been destroyed by the Japanese, owing chiefly to
its being divided between the Baltic and Asiatic coasts of
Russia. The principle of concentration had been recklessly
violated ; although superior in aggregate force, the Russians
continued throughout to be last to arrive and with the few-
est men. A man acquainted with the principles of Strategy,
and with its illustrations in past history, should have had
no need of this additional instance to show him the error
of the Russian procedure, — an error which seemingly arose
from underrating their enemy, for the exposure was prob-
ably due rather to carelessness than ignorance ; but to men
unacquainted with the principle the new illustration was
utterly wasted. They saw their neighbor burned without
the slightest idea how it happened ; and, like a child not
yet burned, undertook with a light heart to expose their
country to the same risk.
Therefore, let no man fall into the mistake of under-
12 NAVAL STRATEGY
yaloing military study ; for study is simply the intelligent
observation of incidents, of events, and drawing from them
conclusions which we call principles. This is what science
does ; and the larger our number of illustrations — observa-
tions— the surer are our inferences. The past has done
much for us. That wliich we call history has recorded
illustrations, and from those illustrations has formulated
principles, ready for our use. It is for us to carry these on;
to apply them for action to our own circumstances ; and to
note how results are affected, as principles are followed or
violated, whether by ourselves or others.
Among naval officers, such active interest in current
events and in past events has developed greatiy since these
lectures were first written. The consequence has been the
amassing of a large amount of material for study, previ-
ously unformulated or undigested. In illustration of this
development permit me to quote again from the address de-
livered by me in 1892 when the College reopened in its new
building. I said : *^ Not only during the time I was actually
resident here, 1886-1888, but in the four years which have
since elapsed, I have made a practice of sending for the
catalogues of the leading military and naval booksellers, at
home and abroad, and carefully scanning their contents.
Whatever could be found bearing in any way on the Art of
Naval War I have had ordered for the College library;
with the result that a single one of the short book shelves
you can see downstairs contains all that we have to show
on the subject of Naval Tactics ; and of that space nearly
one-half is occupied with elaborate treatises upon the tactics
of sailing ships, from Paul Hoste to Chopart.^' In this
remark I added nothing concerning Naval Strategy ; for,
outside of occasional papers, of the nature of magazine arti-
cles, there was no formal treatise except Colomb's ^ Naval
Warfare," published in 1890. Reliance for principles had
to be entirely upon works devoted to land strategy.
INTRODUCTORY 18
I am not prepared to say that in the production of elab-
orate formal treatment of Naval Strategy there has been in
these twenty-one years the kind of advance which shows
itself in large numbers of books. Formal treatment of
Land Strategy is much older; and we would not need a
great increase in the number of our fingers to count up the
books upon it Those which by general acclaim can be
called standards are necessarily fewer stilL But, aside from
production in writing, there are signs sufficient of an inter-
est so enlarged as to indicate the working of the leaven of
study in all countries. The distribution of the fleets itself
bears witness to the prevalence of sounder habits of thought ;
and the recognition of the necessity of formal study has
been shown in the institution by other nations of courses
resembling those of this College. Greater attention is
being paid to considerations of Naval Strategy at the head-
quarters, in the administrations which correspond to our
Navy Department. The redistribution of duties in the
British Board of Admiralty, by the Order in Council of
August, J904, bears the impress of this change ; the duties
concentrated by it in the hands of the First Sea Lord are
essentially strategic in function.
Of books, however, there have been no lack, to testify
to the widespread interest felt. Speaking only of the two
languages familiar to me, French and English, I think it
a moderate statement that thirty years ago works like those
of Darrieus and Daveluy in France, or the historical works
of Julian Corbett in England — I refer specifically to his
^England in the Mediterranean'' and <^ England in the
Seven Tears' War," — could not have been undertaken.
They could not; not because the material for them did not
exist, nor yet the brains to utilize the material, but because
there was not that general interest which brings the brains
and the material into fruitful contact. That the Oerman
naval mind has been as active in this direction as might
14 NAVAL STRATEGY
have been anticipated from the deyelopment of military
science in the nation I know well ; among other ways by
works kindly sent me. I have continually to regret an
unacquaintance with the language which at my age has
barred me from this source of professional profit.
If, as I think is true, this College had a large part in
originating this professional movement, it will be interest-
ing to trace that part backward, up stream, to any one of
its several sources. As you all know, the College owed
its foundation to the urgency of Admiral Luce with the
Navy Department. Among the reasons which moved him
to undertake and persevere in this was his personal experi-
ence of the lack of military perception, of amp cTceU^ in
the administration of the Department which conducted the
War of Secession. Months of time, hundreds of lives, and
millions of dollars had been expended in the direct frontal
attack upon Charleston Harbor by the army and the moni-
tors, one of which was under his command, with the effect,
among other incidents, of reducing Fort Sumter to a
shapeless mass of ruins ; but the city, though shattered by
bombardment, still held out, and the flag of the Confeder-
acy continued to fly defiantiy over the heap which had been
Sumter. Thus things were when Sherman's army arrived
at Savannah from Atlanta.
In what follows I quote the Admiral directiy.
^ From the Nantucket (monitor) I was transferred to the
command of the Pontiac, and on the 6th of January, 1865,
was ordered to report to General Sherman, then in Savan-
nah, for duty in Savannah River in connection with the
Army.
**0n reporting at headquarters, General Sherman indi-
cated in a few, short, pithy sentences, and by the aid of a
map, his plan of campaign from Savannah to the north.
General Siocum, commanding the left wing of the army,
was to move up to Sister's Ferry, about forty miles above
the city, and cross the Savannah Biver by means of a pon-
INTRODUCTORY 16
toon bridge into South Carolina. The object in having a
gnnboat (the Pontiac) was that it might go up the river
above the ferry in order to protect the pontoon bridge from
molestation by the Confederates ; supposed to be in force
somewhere in the direction of Augusta. * When I get on
solid ground/ he said (for much of that part of the country
was inundated), ^somebodv will have to get out of the
way I ' And he added, in we pleasant style of banter with
wblch he was accustomed to talk to naval officers : * Tou
navy fellows have been hammering away at Charleston for
the past three years. But just wait till I get into South
Carolina; I will cut her communications and Charleston
will fall into your hands like a ripe pear.' And that is
just what actually came to pass."
^ After hearing General Sherman's clear exposition of
the military situation the scales seemed to fall from my
eyes. * Here,' I said to myself, * is a soldier who knows
ms business I ' It dawned upon me that there were cer-
tain fundamental principles underlying military operations
which it were well to look into ; principles of general ap-
plication, whether the operations were conducted on land
or at sea."
*^ Leaving Pocataligo, his army now well in hand. Gen-
eral Sherman marched on Columbia and captured the city
with little difficulty. This led to the immediate evac-
uation of Charleston, February 17, 1865, or a little over
three years after capture of Port Royal. Port Royal was
the advanced naval base in the waters of South Caro-
lina, upon which depended the direct frontal attack upon
Charleston."
In connection with the revision of these lectures I have
carefully read among other matter the four books — two
French and two English — which I have mentioned to you
as apt illustrations of the interesting change in the direc-
tion of naval thought in thirty years. Darrieus and
Daveluy, while indulging copiously in illustrative instances,
adopt formally, and to some extent systematically, the
method of my own lectures, till now unpublished. That is,
they state principles, which they develop by discussion;
16 NAVAL STRATEGY
and then adduce their instances, which illuminate the
principles, clothing them as it were with the flesh and blood
of living action, which differentiates a live man from a
skeleton. In this way, while following the logical coherent
method of a consecutive development of principles, enun-
ciated as such, a manner of exposition particularly suited
to the lucid French intellect and language, they dso pre-
serve the historic method for which Daveluy expresses a
distinct preference. Thus he says: *^ History, being the
.record of experience, if exhaustively studied, brings out all
the variable factors which enter war; because History,
however imperfect, forgets none of them« History is pho-
tographic ; whereas the rational processes,'' — that is, when
a man having established a certain basis of truth, builds up
his system from that without checking it by history, *^ the
rational processes tend to be selective." History, in short,
gives you all the qualifying factors; whereas reason, in
love with its own refinements, is liable to overlook that
which should modify them. In somewhat similar thought.
General Sherman once expressed to me a doubt of the
value of sham fights ; because, he said, you cannot supply
the modifying human factor, of apprehension, and of the
other various moral influences which affect militaiy action.
Faithful history gives you the whole; and you cannot
escape from the effect, or benefit, of this, if you use it con-
scientiously. But you approach History with powers de-
veloped to appreciate what it gives, if you have beforehand
the light which is given by principles, clearly enunciated.
Tou come to it provided with standards. For that reason
I apprehend that Daveluy and Darrieus, and, so far as they
stand the test, my own lectures, form a desirable prepa-
ration for works such as those of Corbett, which I have
named. Corbett himself has had the advantage, as a mili-
tary— or naval — historian, of approaching his subject
provided with clearly formulated principles, drawn, as he
INTRODUCTORY 17
contiimallj allows to transpire, from standard military
writers. In my own experience, it was thus I approached
the study of History as a military record. From Jomini's
^ Art of War," a formal treatise like those of Daveluy and
Darrieus, supplemented by his ^History of the Wars of the
French Revolution/' in which he gives history accompanied
by strategic and tactical discussion of events, I went on to
write the course of historicfid lectures which subsequently
were published under the title *^The Influence of Sea
Power upon History." It was upon this foundation that I
then built up the formulation of principles of naval strat-
egy contained in the original lectures which are now to be
read here in their revised and expanded form. The revi-
sion and expansion consist principally in new illustration
and some restatement ; not at all in any novelty of princi-
ples, though there may be some novelty in application.
I trust that in these remarks, intended chiefly as prelim-
inary to the course of lectures on Naval Strategy, I have
sufficiently made clear the reciprocal action of principles
and of historicfid illustration. Each is a partial educator ;
combined, you have in them a perfect instructor. Of the
two. History by itself is better than formulated principles
by themselves ; for in this connection. History, being the
narrative of actions, takes the rOle which we commonly
call practical. It is the story of practical experience. But
we all, I trust, have advanced beyond the habit of thought
which rates the rule of thumb, mere practice, mere personal
experience, above practice illuminated by the principles,
and reinforced by the knowledge, developed by many men
in many quarters. Master your principles, and then ram
them home with the illustrations which History furnishes.
In concluding, I wish to draw your attention pointedly
to one remark of Corbett's. I expect to use from him
several illustrative incidents in due place ; but the remark
I here quote bears upon a necessary element of naval
18 NAVAL STRATEGY
strategic thought which used to be not only ignored, but
actually discredited and decried. I mean the appreciation of
international conditions as an essential factor in all military
plans. I will cite an instance, immediately under our eyes.
When Germany shall have finished the ships contemplated
in the naval programme which she has formally adopted,
she will have a navy much superior to that of the United
States, unless we change our present rate of building, and
also provide more extensive plants. Upon what then will
rest the Monroe Doctrine ? and upon what the security of
the maintenance of the Panama Canal ? The maintenance
of both these depends upon the fleet
The question, if merely one of military force, would be
simple: the superior fleet dominates, if the margin of
superiority be sufficient. It is the question of political
relations which introduces perplexing factors; and the
military adviser of a government is not competent to his
task, unless, by knowledge of conditions, and practice in
weighing them, he can fairly estimate how far inferior
numbers may be reinforced by the pressure which other
considerations may bring to bear upon a possible enemy.
Every naval officer should order his study, and his attention
to contemporary events, abroad and at home, by the reflec-
tion that he may some day be an adviser of the Govern-
ment, and in any case may beneficially affect events by his
correct judgment of world-wide conditions.
I have just stated a principle, namely, the necessity of
including political — international — conditions in military
projects. An illustration, the complement of the principle,
is tiie contemporary historical relations of Germany and of
the United States to other nations. For instance : there is
the solidarity of action between Germany and Austria,
lately shown by the pressure of (Germany upon Russia to
ignore Great Britain and France, and to recognize the
Austrian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. I can-
INTRODUCTORY 19
not, of course, enter now into an elaborate analysis of all
that this German action means, but I can indicate the, to
us, important question involved, which is this: If Ger-
many should wish to embark her fleet in a transatlantic
venture, how far will her relations with other European
states permit her to do so? If we had no fleet, doubtless
she could afford it. If we have nine ships to her ten she
probably could not so afford ; because the resistance we could
put up, whatever the issue, would leave her for the time
without a navy to confront Europe. On the other hand,
should our Pacific coast citizens precipitate us into a war,
or even into seriously strained relations, with Japan, that
pressure upon us would add to the force of the German
fleet In our long contention with Great Britain, based
on the Monroe Doctrine, we made continuous progress up
to the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty of ten years ago. This
registered a success for the Monroe Doctrine, which dur*
ing the month just passed (May, 1911) has been ex-
plicitly accepted by the British Foreign Minister. Dur-
ing all this period our navy was hopelessly inferior to
the British ; sometimes ludicrously so. Tet we won out.
Why did we? and are we in similarly good condition for
a possible contention with the new Power of the Sea ? Where
ought Great Britain to stand, in case we have trouble with
Germany? and where ought we to stand, in the reverse
case?
Corbett's remark is, that in the Seven Years^ War the
strength of the British action lay in the fact that one great
man, the first Pitt, controlled the naval, the military, and
the diplomatic factors. The several conditions were thus
weighed, and were harmonized into a common action, to
which all contributed their utmost influence in mutual
support. The desirability of the result must fix our eyes
.upon the fact that in our country it will never be at-
tained through one man, but only by the co-operation of
20
NAVAL STRATEGY
Beveral. Those several wiU be statesmen, military men, and
naval men; and, in order that their co-operation may be
adequate, each must understand the conditions by which
the others are controlled. The principle here asserted has
received striking recognition in the recent Imperial Con-
ference (1911), when the Government of Gi-eat Britain
explained the imperial and international situation, as it
concerns the common intereste of the Empire, to the min-
isters of Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand,
sitting in secret session conjointly with the Imperial
Defence Committee. Of these common interests the
chief is Imperial Defence ; the oi^nization of which thus
confessedly depends upon a common understauding of
international relations. The often failure of conjoint
military and naval operations has been due less to mean
jealousy than to lack of such mutual understandings ;
and for a due grasp of preparation for war, and for plan-
ning war, military men of both services need to be imbued
with knowledge of international relations. Those relations
do affect the amount of force available in various quaiters,
by the several opponents. Thus Darrieus says correctly :
" Every naval project which takes account neither of the
foreign relations of a great nation, nor of the material limit
fixed by its resources, rests upon a weak and unstable base.
Foreign pohcy and strategy are bound together by an inde-
structible link." In this connection he quotes the German,
Von der Goltz : " Whoever writes on strategy and tactics
ought not in bis theories to neglect the point of view of his
own people. He should give us a national stititegy, a
national tactics."
Now the Monroe Doctiine ifl a point of view of the
American people; and no scheme of strategy — such as
the numbers and constitution of the fleet — is sound if
it neglect this consideration.
My last word to you, then, in these prehminary remarks,
is to master, and keep track of, the great cuiTent events in
d
INTRODUCTORY 21
lustoiy contemporaiy with yourself. Appreciate their mean-
ing. Your own profession, on its militaiy side, calls of
course for your first and closest attention ; but you all will
have time enough to read military history, appreciating its
teachings, and you can also keep abreast of international
relations, to such an extent that when you reach positions
of prime responsibility, your glance — your eoup JCceiU to
repeat the French idiom, — will quickly take in the whole
picture of your country's interests in any emergency,
whether that be pressing or remote. In Nelson's phrase,
you will be no novice ; and you will not, because you,
in your career, as he in his, will have been continually
applying the judgment you are then called specially to ex-
ercise. Remember also that other expression of Nelson's,
^An officer should have political courage." Political
courage, to be well based, requires political knowledge as
welL That you may more effectually concentrate upon
this necessary knowledge, avoid dissipating your energies
upon questions interior to the country ; questions financial,
sociological, economical, or what not. The sphere of the
navy is international solely. It is this which allies it so
closely to that of the statesman. Aim to be yourselves
statesmen as well as seamen. The biography and lustoiy of
our profession will give you glorious names who have been
both. I trust the future may show many such among the
sons of this College.
CHAPTER II
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS
IN considering any theater of actaal or possible war,
or of a prospective battlefield, the first and most es-
sential thing is to determine what position, or chain
of positions, by their natural and inherent advantages
affect control of the greatest part of it The reasons which
give such control to them should be clearly appreciated by
the student, if he is to reach right conclusions himself and
afterwards impart them to others.
Thus, in his study of the great theater of war in Germany
extending eastward from the Rhine to Bohemia, and north-
ward from Switzerland and the Tyrol to and somewhat be-
yond the river Main,^ the Archduke Charles of Austria
pointed out that the stretch of the Danube from Ulm to
Ratisbon was, and, under all the varying changes of tactics
due to the development of weapons, always had been for
two thousand years the controlling military feature of the
country. The party which firmly held it had always come
out conqueror in the strife for the control of the whole
region. This statement the Archduke supports by several
historical instances. The reasons for this decisive effect of
this reach of the Danube upon the whole theater of war are
these : the river, from its character, is eveiywhere an ob-
stacle to the free movement of armies ; it is difficult to
cross ; but it is especially difficult between Ulm and Ratis-
bon, because the banks are high and precipitous, constitut-
ing a defile. This section of the river also is central, not
only between the north and south boundaries of the theater
1 See map fadng pege 68.
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 23
of war, but also between the eastern and western fronts,
which are the bases of the opposing armies. Uhn is about
as far from the Rhine as Radsbon is from Bohemia. Con-
sequently, the army which controls the means of passing
freely across this obstacle placed in the center of the theater
of war, has a decisive advantage over the enemy, who, on
whichever side he may be, is cut off from the other ; or, if
part of his force is on either side, has difficulty to unite.
To this advantage, inherent in the natural condition of
things, is to be added that of the numerous bridges cross-
ing the Danube in this part of its course, several of which
are of a substantial character and heavily fortified. To
these points, joined to each other by direct roads along the
river, lead also the roads stretching northerly and southerly
to different points. In other words, the communications
of the country, the lines by which the armies and their
trains must move, meet and cross at these bridges. For
three hundred years, since the days of Francis L and
Charles V., of Richelieu and Louis XIV., to those of the
Archduke Charles and of Napoleon, the states of Germany
covering these regions were the object of French and Aus-
trian effort, seeking to control them in the one interest or
the other, and these political efforts had often culminated
in war. The theater, therefore, had been the scene of many
experiences.
The Archduke Charles will be remembered as a promi-
nent Austrian general of the days of Napoleon, but it may
not be equally within the memory of all that he was much
the ablest of his time, worthy even to contend with the
great emperor in person. In 1809, though yielding to
Napoleon's superior genius, he retired with honor after a
hardly wrung defeat. He had commanded upon this field
with conspicuous merit in 1796, when by the cleverness
and decision of his movements he got the better of two
French armies, together very much exceeding his force,
24 NAVAL STRATEGY
commandeji) the one by Jouidan, the other by Moreau,
both exceptionally able generals, but who moved, by the
prescribed plan of campaign, the one to the north and
the other to the south of the Danube, whereas he him-
self fell back upon and held a part of this decisive defile.
With the enemy thus separated, he turned hastily upon the
northern army (Jourdan), for which his grip of the river
gave him every facility, drove it rapidly back along and
over the Main to the Rhine again. Then the southern
army (Moreau), finding him on its flank and rear, and
superior to itself alone, was forced to retreat likewise, pass-
ing through the Black Forest instead of to the north of it,
as in its advance, and crossing the Rhine at Huning^en and
Breisach instead of at Strasbui^, whence it had started but
to which it could not return.
In 1809 the Archduke commanded again in this region, —
then against Napoleon himself, — and in the meantime the
valley of the Danube had twice been the scene of great
campaigns by the French ; one under Moreau ending with
the well-known battle of Hohenlinden, and later, in 1805,
under Napoleon, winding up with the yet more celebrated
battle of Austerlitz, in both of which instances the Aus-
trians were overwhelmingly defeated* The attention of
the Archduke had therefore been strongly drawn to this
scene of war, by its own intrinsic interest and by the effect
upon the fortunes of his country. His military ability, and
the special interest this theater had for him, the practical
acquaintance gained by personal command and responsi-
bility, and the unusual candor with which he points out
his own blunders as well as those of others, whether his
enemies or his subordinates, are the guarantee of the
worth of his study of strategy based upon and exemplified
by this historical field of war. This assurance of its value
is doubled by the appreciative notice of Jomini, of whose
reputation as a military writer and critic I need not speak,
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 26
who translated and edited the work with notes, the fewness
of which shows his substantial agreement with the Arch-
dake's opinions.
In former days, I have in these rooms traced out these
movements of the campaign of 1796 with detailed illustra-
tion; showing graphically the successive positions and
numbers of the several forces during the critical days of
the campaign. The special object now in view does not
require this elaboration. It is sufficient simply to show,
by the lines on the plan, the distance to which each
French army advanced, and to indicate the relative distri-
bution of the various forces, on both sides, at the instant
when the French northern army was driven to retreat.
After this retrograde movement, the southern army still
continued to advance, as shown, until Moreau learned of
the retreat of his colleague and the snare into which his
own process since then had been leading himself. It was
evident that Jourdan could not stop short of the Rhine ;
and«that his army, demoralized by defeat and retreat, would
for a measurable time exercise no restraint upon a south-
ward movement of the Archduke to intercept Moreau.
The latter therefore also began to retreat hurriedly ; but,
before he could regain the Rhine, the pressure of the Aus-
trians towards the upper waters of the river became so
ominous that the French were compelled to diverge to the
southward, and escaped interception only by crossing at
Breisach instead of by Strasbuig whence they had set out.
At present I am proposing to bring before you historical
illustrations of the importance and value (1) of concentra-
tion; and, as means thereto, (2) of a central line, or posi-
tion, such as the Danube valley, (8) of the interior lines of
movement, which such a position presents, and (4) of the
bearing of communications upon military tenure and suc-
cess ; of which the necessity of retreat laid upon Moreau is
an instance. The most elaborate additional example to this
26 NAVAL STRATEGY
end which I shall present is drawn from wars over a hundred
years antecedent to the campaign of 1796 ; but it has an
advantage oyer that veiy celebrated achievement of the
Archduke, in that it not only brings military and naval
movement into contrast, and so into mutual illustration,
but shows them actually working together. The situation
in ito distinguishing features is partly militaiy, partly
navaL It may be styled quite properly a combined military
and naval situation, dependent upon both military and naval
conditions ; so that the campaigns of the war may be called
combined operations, although the combination is not so
clearly on the surface that it can be seen without careful
analysis. This will be succeeded by a brief account of the
purely naval war that followed between the Dutch and
English, 1652-1654, with which the narrative will close,
and which itself is illustrative of the same lessons of con-
centration, of central positions, and of interior lines.
The series thus constituted therefore is, first, the purely
land campaign of 1796 in (Germany, already touched upon ;
second, the mixed, or combined naval and military situations
consequent upon the war of France and her allies against
allied Austria and Spain, 1685-1648, in which the central
position is indicated by the line of communication from
Spain to Genoa by the Mediterranean, and thence by Milan
to the Rhine valley ; ^ third, the purely naval hostilities be-
tween the Dutch and English, 1652-1654, which occurred
not long after the war between France and Austria, and
was in some measure an outgrowth of that war.'
For the latter two instances, I am indebted for much in-
formation, and in some measure for suggestion, to Corbett's
** England in the Mediterranean ; " amplified necessarily by
reference to other authors. Gorbett in that book has added
a very valuable chapter to naval history, and through naval
1 See map feeing page 01.
* See mapi facing pages 70, 72.
y
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 27
history to general history, by presenting in a connected
whole a narratiye of the incidents which led Great Britain
to the Mediterranean, establishing her as a Mediterra-
nean Power by securely basing her navy in that sea;
and, further, by showing the consequent military effect
upon the general course of events — the effect on land —
which was produced by the presence there of the British
navy in superior force.
The entire period covered by ^ England in the Mediter-
ranean" is from about 1600 to 1718; roughly, from the
death of Elizabeth of England to that of Queen Anne, or
to the Peace of Utrecht. First and last, we shall touch
upon several occurrences in this stretch of time ; but the
chief part of our treatment concerns the thirty years 1630-
1660. By the year 1640 of this period, England was re-
duced to impotence for external action by Civil War
beginning between the King and the Parliament; the
power of France had been consolidated by Richelieu ; and
a struggle, which lasted much over a century, had begun
between France and the House of Austria, which then
ruled not only in the German territory we now associate
with its name, but over Spain as welL
This struggle between the House of Bourbon and the
House of Austria was a part of the general conflict known
to history as the TWrty Years' War, 1618-1648, which m
its scope covered all the continent of Europe west of Rus-
sia. This war, while essentially religious in origin and
characteristics, nevertheless took in the end the particular
form of a political contest between the two dynasties named.
Although both were strongly Roman Catholic, their antag-
onism was determined fundamentally by the fact that Ger-
man Austria was consolidating the action of the greater
part of the German states under the German Emperor,
who was of the Austrian family; and that this great
concentration of power was sustained by the money and
28 NAYAL STRATEGY
by the still formidable military strengfth and military po-
sitions of Spain, which was also under Austrian kings.
The preceding century had seen this same combination in
the hands of a single sovereign, the renowned Emperor
Charles V. To prevent the recurrence of such a condition
became the policy of France, formulated by Henry IV. and
accepted by Richelieu. For this object they associated
themselves to the Protestant Powers of northern Europe :
Holland, Sweden, and the numerous independent, though
relatively small, German Protestant states, which also were
geographically northern. These alliances have particular
historical interest, because they mark the transition from
the religious motive, which had dominated the previous
century, — the century of the Reformation, — to the purely
political combinations familiar to the following two hundred
years. This is also worthy to be noted, because the ex-
ternal policy of Oliver Cromwell, on which we must touch,
1650-1658, when he had consolidated the power of Great
Britain for action abroad, was not only colored by the re-
ligious motive but deeply influenced by it.
The position of France, as regards the two great Austrian
States, was central ; and her power was greater than that
of either individually. Her need, therefore, was to keep
them so separated that the power of one could not reinforce
that of the other. This will be recognized by military stu-
dents as a frequent military situation, and one of absorbing
interest when it occurs. In all such instances the under-
lying principle is constant ; but the application varies with
circumstances, so that illustration is enforced by novelty
and diversity. The situation of France in the case now be-
fore us presents a repetition in principle, though differing
in circumstances, of that of the Archduke Charles between
Jourdan and Moreau in 1796, just spoken of ; and this mili-
tary situation also has its defile of the Danube, in the
chain of positions, G^noa, Milan, and the Valtelline passes
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 29
of the Alps. Tributary to these, but similarly vital, are the
sea communioations from Spain ; to Grenoa on the one hand
and to the Netherlands on the other.
France being the enemy, you do not need even to look
at a map to know that the resources of Spain, in troops
and wealth, could reach the German Austria only by sea.
The whole bulk of France, from the Pyrenees to the Rhine,
interposed; but beyond her eastern frontier, which the
Rhine indicates roughly, — not precisely, — the Spanish
Austria held Belgium, then called the Spanish Nether-
lands, on the Nordi Sea, and the Duchy of Milan in North-
em Italy. To the latter of these she had access through
Genoa, then in alliance with Spain. Speaking of these
conditions, the great German historian Ranke, in one of
his most considerable works, says: ^^The connection of
Spain with the Netherlands on the one hand, and with
South Italy and Milan on the other, was that which espe-
cially ruled the course of international policy between the
years 1500 and 1700." This was the result of the day
when the Austrian Charles V. was at the same time Ger-
man Emperor and King of Spain. To the inheritance of
Spain and Italy from his mother, he had brought that
of Holland and Belgium from his father. At the period of
which we are now treating, 1630-1650, Holland had effected
an actual though not yet recognized independence, but
Belgium remained Spanish.
It followed that, if the ways of the sea were open, Spain
having reached the Netherlands on the one side, or Genoa
on the other, could then proceed, and on occasions did pro-
ceed, by land to any intermediate point on German terri-
tory. To twentieth century ears there is an oddness in
hearing of Spanish troops acting on the Middle Rhine, and
learning that they came from Belgium. The Navy of
England was paraljrzed at this time by the home troubles.
Until these reached their climax, the policy of Charles I.,
80 NAVAL STRATEGY
though vacillating, was upon the whole favorable to Spain ;
but the Dutch Navy was hostile to her and formidable. It
hindered access by the ocean and the English Channel to
the Netherlands and thence to Germany. The Spanish
Navy could not face the Dutch. An attempt made in 1689
to send ten thousand troops by this route led to a crushing
defeat of the convoying fleet, which the Dutch attacked in
the Downs, where it had sought English shelter.
In the Mediterranean the case was different. France
maintained there no force equivalent to the Dutch Navy
in the North Sea ; consequently Spain had open passage to
Genoa, and thence by Milan and the Tyrol to the interior
of Germany. Her particular route varied according to the
circumstances of the times, or the fortunes of war; but in
general terms it was Genoa, Milan, and thence by the
passes of the Alps to the valley of the Rhine ; or to the
valley of the Danube. The Rhine was the shorter and
more desirable route, but when the power of France trenched
upon it, the longer, exterior, route to the eastward, through
the heart of Germany, could be used.
Thus, the conditions of the Danube, intermediate be-
tween the territory north and south of the river, are
reproduced in these Italian Possessions and the adjacent
Mediterranean Cioasts, intervening between Belgium and
Germany on the one side and Spain on the other. Spain,
troops and treasure, could go to Genoa only by the Medi-
terranean. It became therefore necessary for her to con-
trol this strip of sea, and necessary for France to dispossess
her, either of it, or of the Italian provinces, or of both ;
for they, like the bridges of the Danube, gave means of
passing the Austrian power from one side to the other, and
thereby of rapidly effecting local superiority by concentrsr
tion, which is the fundamental object in all military com-
binations. The same positions, if in the possession of
France, would enable her to concentrate a force of opposition
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 81
Buffioient to prevent the concentration of the enemy. For
these reasons, as early as the reign of James I. of England,
before the power of the kingdom had been shaken by civil
dissension, and while the Stuart policy was hesitating be-
tween ** for Spain" and ^* against Spain,'' it was proposed
by Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1617, to fit out an expedition
against Genoa. This project was mooted again in 1624,
but on neither occasion came to anything. Successfully
effected, it would have blocked the Spanish communications
during the period of occupancy. The Valtelline passes of
the Alps presented a similar critical link.
The situation of France relatively to her two opponents
of this period — Spain and Austria — illustrates three ele-
ments of strategy, of frequent mention, which it is well
here to name and to define, as well as to illustrate by the
instance before you.
1. There is central position, illustrated by France ; her
national power and control interposing by land between
her enemies. Yet not by land only, provided the coast
supports an adequate navy ; for, if that be the case, the
French fleet also interposes between Spanish and Italian
ports. The Danube is similarly an instance of central
position.
2. Interior lines. The characteristic of interior lines is
that of the central position prolonged in one or more direc-
tions, thus favoring sustained interposition between separate
bodies of an enemy ; with the consequent power to concen-
trate against either, while holding the other in check with
a force possibly distinctly inferior. An interior line may
be conceived as the extension of a central position, or as a
series of central positions connected with one another, as a
geometrical line is a continuous series of geometrical points.
The expression *^ Interior Lines " conveys the meaning that
from a central position one can assemble more rapidly on
either of two opposite fronts than the enemy can, and there-
82 NAVAL STRATEGY
iore can utilize force more effectively. Particular examples
of maritime interior lines are found in the route by Suez as
compared with that by the Cape of Good Hope, and in
Panama contrasted with Magellan. The Kiel Canal simi-
larly affords an interior line between the Baltic and North
Sea, as against the natural channels passing round Den-
mark, or between the Danish Islands, — the Sound and the
two Belts.^ These instances of *^ Interior '' will recall one
of your boyhood's geometrical theorems, demonstrating
that, from a point interior to a triangle, lines drawn
to two angles are shorter than the corresponding sides
of the triangle itself. Briefly, interior lines are lines
shorter in time than those the enemy can use. France,
for instance, in the case before us, could march twenty
thousand men to the Rhine, or to the Pyrenees, or could
send necessary supplies to either, sooner than Spain
could send the same number to the Rhine, or Austria to
the Pyrenees, granting even that the sea were open to
their ships.
8. The position of France relatively to Oermany and
Spain illustrates also the question of communications.
*^ Communications " is a general term, designating the lines
of movement by which a military body, army or fleet, is kept
in living connection with the national power. This being
the leading characteristic of communications, they may
be considered essentially lines of defensive action ; while
interior lines are rather offensive in character, enabling the
belligerent favored by them to attack in force one part of
1 An interesting inetanoe of the method and forethought which cause
German naral derelopment of all kinds to progress abreast, on parallel
lines, is fonnd in the fkot that by the time the three Dreadnoughts laid down
in 1911 are completed, and with them two complete Dreadnought squadrons
of eight each, which probably will be in 1914, the Kiel Canal will have been
enlarged to permit their passage. There will then be a fleet of thirty-eight
battle ships ; including these sixteen, which will be stationed, eight in the
North Sea, eight in the Baltic, linked for mutual support by the central
canal. The programme contemplates a continuous pre-arranged replacing
of the present pre-Dreadnonghts by Dreadnoughts.
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 88
the hostile line sooner than the enemy oan reinforce it,
becaase the assailant is nearer than the friend As a con-
crete instance, the disastrous attempt already mentioned,
of Spain in 1689 to send reinforcements by the. Channel,
followed Uie route from Corunna to the Straits of Dover.
It did so because at that particular moment the successes
of France had given her control of part of the valley of
the Rhine, closing it to the Spaniards from Milan ; while
the more eastern route through Grermany was barred by
the Swedes, who in the Thirty Tears' War were allies of
France. The Channel therefore at that moment remained
the only road open from Spain to the Netherlands, between
which it became the ^line of communications. Granting
the attempt had been successful, the line followed is
exterior; for, assuming equal rapidity of movement, ten
thousand men starting from central France should reach
the field sooner.
The central position of France, therefore, gave both
defensive and offensive advantage. In consequence of the
position she had interior lines, shorter lines, by which to
attack, and also her communications to either front lay
behind the front, were covered by the army at the front ;
in other words, had good defense, besides being shorter than
those by which the enemy on one front could send help to
the other front. Further, by virtue of her position, the
French ports on the Atlantic and Channel flanked the
Spanish sea communications.
At the present moment, Germany and Austria-Hungary,
as members of the Triple Alliance, have the same advan-
tage of central and concentrated position against the Triple
Entente^ Russia, France, and Great Britain.
Transfer now your attention back to the Danube when
the scene of war is in that region ; as it was In 1796, and
also frequently was during the period of wliich we are now
speaking. A most important battle, for instance, Spaniards
84 NAVAL STRATEGY
and South Gennans against the Swedes and North Oer-
mans, was fought at Noidlingen, in 1634. Up to that time
the mass of the French navy had been kept in the Atlantic
ports. Under this condition, Spain had open sea commu-
nication with Genoa and Milan, and it was through the
junction of Spanish troops coming from Milan, with Ger-
man troops already in the field, that a decisive victory was
gained; after which the Spaniards moved on to the
Netherlands. Tou have seen before, that, if there be war
between Austria and France, as there so often was, the one
who held the Danube had a central position in the region.
Holding means possession by military power, which power
can be used to the full against the North or against the
South — offensive power — far more easily than the South
and North can combine against him ; because he is nearer
to each than either is to the other.^ Should North wish to
send a big reinforcement to South, it cannot march across
the part of the Danube held, but must march around it
above or below ; exactly as, in 1640, reinforcements from
Spain to the Rhine had, so to say, to march around France.
In such a march, on land, the reinforcement making it is
necessarily in a long column, because roads do not allow a
great many men to walk abreast The road followed, desig-
nates in fact the alignment of the reinforcement from day to
day ; and because its advance continually turns the side
to the enemy, around whom it is moving, the enemy's
position is said to flank the movement, constituting a
recognized danger. It makes no difference whether the
line of march is straight or curved ; it is extension upon it
that constitutes the danger, because the line itself, being
thin, is everywhere weak, liable to an attack in force upon
a relatively small part of its whole. Communications are
exposed, and the enemy has the interior line.
Of tactical movements resembling that of the detach-
1 See map fadng page 84.
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 86
ment in the figure, Austerlitz, on the part of the allied Rus-
sians and Austrians opposed to Napoleon, presented an
instance ; as did also that of the Confederate detachment
under Stonewall Jackson at Chancellorsville. The former,
performed under the eyes of Napoleon, resulted in a crush-
ing defeat by his concentrated attack upon the communi-
cation between the two wings of the enemy, when the
movement had developed so far as to be irretrievable.
Jackson's movement, though in itself similarly hazardous
to that of the Allies at Austerlitz, was successful because
the Union commander-in-chief failed to penetrate the ene-
my's designs, and consequently did not realize that the army
before him was divided into two fractions which could be
separated by his concentrated force. He perceived only
the danger to his own right flank and rear.
The situation is this : As the detachment, laige or small,
let us say from North, moves away, the space between it
it and the main body becomes at once a line of communi-
cation. The farther it moves, day by day, the longer that
line. Granting it has supplies enough, it none the less is
drawing away from facility of reinforcement, — is in this
exposing its communications, is depending on itself alone ;
a condition which continues until it comes in reach of
support from South. During the movement, the whole
national army to which it belongs — North plus South —
is for the time distributed in three fractions ; one of which
at least — the detachment — is not resting on a fortified
position, as the two principal bodies may be, and as the
enemy certainly is, because the river itself is a defense
and also has been fortified at the bridges.
None of these disabilities lie upon the central position*
A march from one part to the other entails no exposure. It
is not meant that the enemy may not attack, but that there
is not additional exposure because of the march. An occu-
pied line, assumed as a position, does not have to be weak ;
36 NAYAL STRATEGY
because being stationary, the exigencies of a maich, which
must follow roads, do not exist, and the troops can be dis-
tributed with sole view to mutual support. That is the
defensive strength of the central position ; the communica-
tion between the parts is secure ; no gaps, nor weak links.
For offensive strength, there are the interior lines. Center
is always nearer to North and South than either is to the
other ; can throw his full force in offense upon one or the
other before they can combine in defense ; and also, in case
of a move such as we have been considering, intended to
improve the general situation by a redistribution of forces,
center has the opportunity to strike one of the three divi-
sions of his enemy before the others can help.
This is an illustration of the force of Napoleon's saying,
that **War is a business of positions.*' All this discussion
turns on position ; the ordinary, semi-permanent, positions
of Center, North, and South; or the succession of positions
occupied by the detachment on that line of communications
along which it moves. This illustrates the importance of
positions in a single instance, but is by no means exhaustive
of that importance. Fully to comprehend, it is necessary
to study military and naval history; bearing steadily in
mind Napoleon's saying, and the definitions of central po-
sition, interior lines, and communications.
Take, for example, an instance so recent as to have been
contemporary with men not yet old, — ^the Turkish position
at Plevna in 1877. This stopped the Russian advance on
Constantinople for almost five months. Why ? Because,
if they had gone on, Plevna would have been close to their
line of communications, and in a central position relatively
to their forces at the front and those in the rear, or behind
the Danube. It was also so near, that, if the enemy ad-
vanced &r, the garrison of Plevna could reach the only
bridge across the Danube, at Sistova, and might destroy it,
before help could come ; that is, Plevna possessed an interior
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 87
line towards a point of the utmost importance. Under
these circumstances, Pleyna alone arrested the whole Rus-
sian movement In the recent war between Japan and
Russia,^ the Port Arthur fleet similarly threatened the Jap-
anese line of communications from Japan to Manchuria,
and so affected the whole conduct of the war. It was cen-
tral, as regards Japan and Liao-Yang, or Mukden. Study
of such conditions reinforces knowledge, by affording nu-
merous illustrations of the effect of position under very
differing circumstances.
Let us now go back from the Archduke Charles, and the
Danube with its Centre, North, and South, to the commu-
nications between the Spanish coast and the Austrian
army in Germany. Should the House of Austria in Spain
desire to send large reinforcements to the Danube, or to the
Rhine, by way of Italy, it can do so, provided it controls
the sea ; and provided also that France has not shaken its
hold upon North Italy. Such a condition constitutes open
and safe communications. If, however, command of the
sea is not assured, if the French navy, say at Toulon, is
equal to the Spanish navy in the neighborhood, there is
danger of a reverse ; while if the French navy is superior
locally, there is great danger not merely of a reverse but of
a serious disaster. In such a case the French navy, or the
port of Toulon, flanks the Spanish line of communication ;
again an instance of position. As to position, Toulon
would correspond to Plevna and Port Arthur. This in-
stance illustrates, however, as Port Arthur conspicuously
did, that the value of a position is not in the bare position,
but in the use you make of it. This, it is pertinent to
note, is just the value of anything a man possesses, his
brains or his fortune — the use he makes of either. Should
the French navy be decisively inferior locally to the Span-
ish, Toulon loses its importance. As position it is still
1 See map fodng page 426.
88 NAVAL STRATEGY
good, but it cannot be used. It is an unavailable asset
So at Plevna, had the garrison been so small that it could
not take the field, the place either would have been captured,
or could have been watched by a detachment, while the
main Russian body moved on. At Port Arthur, the ineffi-
ciency of the Russian navy permitted this course to the
Japanese. They watched the place by navy and army, and
went on with their march in Manchuria. Even so, the
threat inherent in the position compelled an immense de-
tachment of troops necessary for the siege, and so greatly
weakened the main army in its action.
Note that it is the nearness of Toulon, as of Plevna,
which constitutes the menace to the line of communication ;
the line from the port to that of the communications is thus
an interior line, short, enabling an attack by surprise, or in
force. It is the same consideration that has made Cadiz at
one time, Gibraltar now, Malta, Jamaica, Guantanamo Bay,
all threatening positions ; the ones to vessels bound up or
down the Mediterranean to or from Suez, the others to
vessels going to or from the Isthmus of Panama. If it had
been feasible for Spain to carry her reinforcements south
of Sardinia and thence north, Toulon would so far have
lost much of this value. As the line drew near Genoa, it
would have regained control only in some measure ; that is,
to a less degree and for a shorter time. As a matter of
fact such roundabout lines, fau9%e% route$ as Napoleon
called them, have played a notable part in the strategy of a
weaker party. The most convenient commercial route is
not necessarily the most significant to strategy. Napoleon,
for example, when bound to Egypt from Malta in 1798,
did not go direct, but first sighted Crete and then bore
away for Egypt. Owing to this. Nelson in pursuit missed
the French because he naturally went direct.
The same beneficial effect — the same amount of pro-
tection as a roundabout line would give — might have
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 89
been obtained if the Spanish navy on the Atlantic coast
threatened French ports and commerce, and thus induced
France to keep her navy, in whole or in part, in that
quarter, weakening her Toulon force; so that, though
favorably situated, it was not strong enough to attack.
This was actually the case up to 1634, in which year the
defeat of the allies of France at Nordlingen, due to Spanish
troops from Italy reinforcing the Imperial armies in
Germany, compelled France to declare open war against
Spain and to transfer her fleet to the Mediterranean. This
effect was produced also in 1898 on the United States;
not by the Spanish navy, which was innoxious in every-
thing but talk, but by the fears of the American people,
which prompted the American Government to keep the so
called Flying Squadron in Hampton Roads, instead of close
to the probable scene of war. Owing to this distribution, if
Cervera's squadron had been efficient, it could have got
into Gienfuegos instead of Santiago ; a very much harder
nut to crack, because in close railroad communication with
Havana and with the great mass of the Spanish army in
Cuba. It is the same sort of unintelligent fear which
prompts the demand now to send half the battle-fleet to
the Pacific. No course could be more entirely satisfactory
to an enemy, or more paralyzing to the United States fleet,
than just this. All or none ; the battle-fleet concentrated,
whether in the Pacific or the Atlantic.
You will remember that in the war with Spain the
United States navy had reproduced for it the situation I
have depicted, of a detachment trying to pass round the
Danube from North to South. The ^ Oregon " was the de-
tachment, and she had to join the American fleet in the
West Indies, in spite of the Spanish squadron. She
reached Barbados May 18 ; the day before Cervera entered
Santiago, and six days after he left Martinique, which is
only one hundred miles from Barbados. The utter ineffi-
40 NAVAL STRATEGY
ciency of the Spanish navy has caused us to lose sight of
the risk to the ** Oregon,'' which was keenly felt by her com-
mander, and concerning which at the moment two former
secretaries of the navy expressed to me their anxiety.
Despite this experience, there are those now who would re-
constitute it for us, half the fleet in the Pacific and half in
the Atlantic ; exactly the situation of Jourdan and Moreau.
Should then war arise with a European state, or with Japan,
it would be open to either enemy to take the Danube posi-
tion between our two divisions, as Togo did between the
Port Arthur and Baltic squadrons.
As a matter of experience, in the struggle to which
France, Spain, and the German Empire were parties, be-
tween 1680 and 1660, the importance of the line of commu-
nication from Spain to Genoa became so evident that it
changed the general distribution of the French navy, and
also led to its enlargement. Richelieu, who died in 1642,
had reorganized and consolidated the fleet ; he is looked on
by many Frenchmen as the real father of their navy. His
first distribution, however, had reference to Atlantic condi-
tions. The ocean and the Mediterranean constitute for
France the dilemma which the Atlantic and the Pacific pre-
sent to the United States. Richelieu at the first stationed
three squadrons on the ocean, that is, in the Channel and
Bay of Biscay ; in the Gulf of Lyons only one, and that of
galleys, not of sailing vessels. His original motive in reor-
ganizing the navy had been the usual one of the protection
of commerce and of the coasts. To that, as the aggrandize-
ment of the House of Austria drew France more and more
into opposition to both its branches, in Spain and in
Crermany, was added the necessity of blocking the commu-
nications between them by sea, notably in the English
Channel and in the Mediterranean.
France entered the Thirty Years* War openly in May,
1686. For some time before she had been indirectly oppos-
HISTORlbAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 41
ing Austria, by subsidieB, and by partial action favoring
her enemies ; but the immediate occasion of her taking an
active part was the heavy defeat at Nordlingen, August 27,
1684, inflicted upon the allies of France, the Swedes and
North Gennans. This done, the Spaniards had marched on,
by the Rhine, to Belgium — their Netherlands. It may be
added that this heavy reinforcement to the Spanish military
power in the Netherlands probably had much to do with
the Spanish successes in the following years, which at one
moment (1686) threatened Paris itself.
To Richelieu's far-sighted political views, the project
of obtaining the Rhine as the eastern boundary of France
was already present ; but at this time his particular military
aim was to sever the communications from Italy through
the south of Germany, where the Austrian power lay,
to the Netherlands, upon which he intended the weight
of his attack on Spain to fall, and which he proposed
to divide between France and Holland. In order to ef-
fect this interruption of communications, he had already,
in 1688, taken possession of Lorraine, then an independent
(German state near, but west of, the Rhine, because it
had helped the Emperor. From there the French forces
had also entered Alsace, which borders the river. Thus
France interrupted the communication by the Rhine
valley ; but subsequent events, culminating in the battle
of Nordlingen, had opened to the Spaniards another line
of communication, exterior to that by the valley of the
Rhine ; longer, but serviceable.
This was too far interior to Germany for France to reach
just then; consequently it became necessary to attack
that part of the long line of communication which was by
sea, viz. : from the east coast of Spain to Genoa. Accord-
ingly, Richelieu in 1686 ordered his Atlantic squadrons
round to Toulon. As is often the case, his reasons for this
move may have been more than one. Grardiner, the most
42 NAVAL STRATEGY
recent and exhaustive historian for this period, surmises
that the motive was to withdraw the French navy from
contact with the English ; for the English king, Charles I.,
though formally neutral, was helping Spain in the Channel.
English ships of war convoyed Spanish transports, with
men, supplies, and money, to Dunkirk; which, though
at the present time French, was then the militeiry port of
the Spanish Netherlands. Richelieu did not wish a rup-
ture with England, and the surest way to avoid it was to
keep his ships out of the way. This was the more impera-
tive, because the English king viewed with jealousy the
efforts of France to create a navy then, exactly as the Brit-
ish people toKlay are viewing with fear and distrust the
growth of the Grerman navy. The navy of Spain was then
a long existent fact, to which, and to beating it, England
was accustomed ; the French navy was new, and an addi-
tional danger. Moreover, Spain was far away; whereas
France, like Germany now, bordered the Narrow Seas.
Whatever the reason, the fact is certain that in 1636 the
French navy left the Atlantic, and concentrated at Toulon,
then a partly developed arsenal, for galleys only. Mean-
time the Spaniards, to secure the sea communications, had
seized the Lerins Islands between Toulon and Genoa, and
were fortifying them. This position gave them a base
whence to interrupt French coast trade — offensive ; and
also to support their own communications to Genoa — de-
fensive. It is to this act of the Spaniards, specifically, that
Corbett attributes the concentration of the French navy at
Toulon ; in which case the movement was not an instance
of military foresight and sagacity, but the simple recognition
of a present condition too obvious to be overlooked. The
Spaniards soon after, most inopportunely for themselves,
reduced their garrison in the Lerins, which the French
were thus enabled to regain in 1687. The advantage of
position was thus restored to Toulon.
CHAPTER ni
mSTOEICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS
(^Cantinued)
THE general war against the House of Austria,
as conducted by Richelieu, appears to have
suffered from tiie same cause that saps the
vigor of many wars; he attempted too many
things at once, instead of concentrating for decided supe-
riority in some one or two localities. For such concen-
tration he had good opportunities, owing to the central
positition and interior lines possessed by France. It was
open to him to act in great force either in Belgium, or on
the Rhine, or in Italy, or towards Spain. Moreover, he
had the initial advantage of a natural concentration : one
nation against two, and those separated in space. The
proverbial weakness of alliances is due to inferior power of
concentration. Granting the same aggregate of force, it is
never as great in two hands as in one, because it is not
perfectly concentrated. Each party to an alliance usually
has its particular aim, which divides action. In any mili-
tary scheme that comes before you, let your first question
to yourself be. Is this consistent with the requirement of
concentration? Never attempt to straddle, to do two things
at the same time, unless your force is evidently so supreme
that you have clearly more than enough for each.
Our profession has never produced a man more daring
in enterprise, nor more skilful in manag^ement, than Nelson.
Remember, therefore, and always, that, when he sent off
two frigates on some expedition, he charged their captains :
^ If you meet two enemies, do not each attack one. Com-
44 HAVAL STRATEGY
bine botb on one of the enemy; you will make sure of
that one, and you may also get the other afterwards ; but,
whether the second escape or not, your country will have
won a victory, and gained a ship/'
The same consideration applies to ship design. Tou can-
not have everything. If you attempt it, you will lose eveiy-
thing; by which I mean that in no one quality will your
vessel be as efficient as if you had concentrated purpose on
that one* On a given tonnage, — which in ship-building
corresponds to a given size of army or of fleet, — there
cannot be had the highest speed, and the heaviest bat-
tery, and the thickest armor, and the longest coal en-
durance, which the tonnage would allow to any one of
these objects by itself. If you try, you will be repeating
Richelieu's mistake when he tided to carry on offensive war
on four frontiers. He also wanted four things. In the
Netherlands he wanted conquest; on the Rhine, to hold
the Spanish communications, possibly conquest as well; in
Italy, to hold the communications ; and lastly, in Spain, to
sustain a rebellion in Catalonia with a view to the uniting
of that province to France. The war lasted his life, al-
though he lived for seven years after it began. Happily
for France, by the force of circumstances her navy could
remain concentrated in the Mediterranean. This was due
partly to the fact that the fleet of England, which favored
Spain, was fettered for offensive action by the gpx)wing
disputes between the King and the Parliament; but it was
owing chiefly to Holland being the ally of France. The
Dutch fleet was strong enough to keep the Spanish in
check in the Channel, without French assistance, despite
Charles' friendly attitude to Spain; for the King was
afraid to provoke hostilities by too positive action against
Holland, lest he should have to summon Parliament to get
money for war.
I am always much in favor of enforcing military anal-
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 46
ogies. By this I mean showing the existence and effect
of a single principle, underlying and deciding, in circum-
stances which superficially seem very diverse* Take, for
example, the long line of frontier over which Richelieu had
to act : the Netherlands ; along the Rhine ; the Italian
Alps ; the Mediterranean coast, centering from Toulon to
Genoa ; lastly, Spain. The proper course would not be to
attempt all at once, but to assemble as rapidly and secretly
as possible a great preponderance on one part, while in the
other quarters the attitude should be essentially defensive,
however much this fact should be concealed by a display of
energy ; making a big smoke, as the proverb says. Now
this rule of concentration is precisely the same in the com-
paratively short line of a battle-field. That is to say, the
rule ^)plies to the limited field of tactics, as well as to the
broader of strategy. Granting some approach to equality
between two opponents, the object of each must not be to
have a square set-to all along the front, but to throw the
weight upon one quarter, while on the other action is either
a feint or a ref usaL Refusing, in military parlance, means
keeping back part of your force actually, however vigorous
and earnest its demonstration may appear.
In land warfare, the part of the enemy to attack will be
determined usually by conditions of the ground ; because,
from these conditions, in addition to a local superiority of
numbers, which you effect by concentration, you seek some
disadvantage of position somewhere to the enemy, and
consequently some increased advantage to yourself. For
instance, one flank of the enemy may rest on a river ; im-
passable, or with insufficient bridges. If you attack on the
other flank, you may throw him round with his back to
the river; when, if defeated, he is evidently in danger of
destruction. Or, one flank being driven back, you may
force his whole line round at right angles, and drive him
off the road behind, by which his supplies come — severing
46 NAVAL STRATEGY
his communications. This was what Wellington expected
Napoleon would attempt in the Waterloo campaign, in oitler
to cut the British off from the sea. Or, again, there may be
something in the conditions which encourages an assault
upon his center ; because, if you break through, you will
then, with the advantage of the particular position gained,
be able to keep one half in check, while you throw your
mass of men on the other half.^ Napoleon in Italy, for in-
stance, thus used a central position successfully against
numbers much superior to his own, which had made the
mistake, similar to that of Jourdan and Moreau, of advanc-
ing on exterior lines, on either side of Lake Gktrda, which
with its outlet, the Mincio, thus became their Danube val-
ley. Their commander was moved to this division by the
superficially plausible idea that while he himself attacked
on the east, in front, with superior numbers, driving the
French back, the western body would act in the rear, cut-
ting the French communications with Milan and Genoa.
Bonaparte at the moment was occupjdng Verona and be-
sieg^g Mantua. Abandoning both these positions, he fell
back upon the Mincio, and to its west bank. This he held
against the eastern Austrians with a small force strength-
ened by the river, and with the delay thus obtained was
enabled to fall upon the western at Lonato in much
superior numbers. Those of you who will take the trouble
to read Jomini's "Wars of the French Revolution,'' espec-
ially Bonaparte in Italy in 1796, will find instruction in
the use of ground. This campaign required special care in
utilizing position, because Napoleon was usually in inferior
numbers.
Generally, in land warfare, the attack on the flank of an
enemy's line is preferred, unless there be strong opposing
reasons in the nature of the ground. I apprehend that the
reason is substantially this : that each flank is farther from
1 See map flKdog page 40.
FRENCH
AUSTRIAN
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 47
the other than either is from the center. Consequently
each flank, and both flanks, can help the center more easily
than either flank can help the other. It is, in short, a
question of distance, or, more accurately, of time. For
instance, reverting to Richelieu's line, it will be seen that
if he attacked in force the Netherhnds on one flank, it
would take Spanish reinforcements from Italy much longer
to get there than if he attacked the center, on the Rhine.
In naval tactics, as in land battle-fields, this same consider-
ation usually determines the character of attack. There
are exceptions. At the battle of Cape St. Vincent the
British admiral attacked the enemy's center ; but that was
because the enemy had left the center so weak — in fact,
stripped — that it was possible for the British fleet to inter-
pose between the two flanks, and engage one only of them,
as Napoleon broke the enemy's center at AusterUtz.
The fighting order of navies still continues a line ; which
is called more properly a column, because the ships are
ranged one behind the other. Nevertheless, if the arrange-
ment of the guns, from van to rear, is regarded, it will be
seen that they really are deployed on a line fronting the
enemy. As a rule, in instructed naval warfare, attack has
been on one flank of that line. It is commonly spoken of
as an attack on van or rear, because of the columnar forma-
tion of the ships, but it is reaUy a flank attack; and,
whichever flank is chosen, the attack on the other is
essentially refused, because the numbers devoted to it
are not sufficient to press an attack home. The cul-
mination of the sail era — Trafalgar — was fought ex-
actly on these lines. Nelson concentrated the bulk of
his fleet, a superior force, on the left flank of the enemy,
which happened to be the rear; against the right flank
he sent a smaller number. He did not indeed give
specific orders to the smaller body not to attack, or to
refuse themselves. That was not his way. Moreover,
48 NAVAL STRATEGY
he intended himself to take charge of this attack in smaller
force, and to be governed by circumstances as to the
development of it ; but the result was shown in the fact
that the larger part of the enemy's right flank escaped,
and all probably wou]4 if they had maneuvered welL The
hostile loss fell on the other flank and on the center; and
not only was this the case in result, but also Nelson in form
and in his ordere purposed just this* He put the concen-
trated attack in the hands of his second ; ^^ I/* said he, in
effect, ^ will see that the other flank of the enemy does not
interfere." Conditions modified his action ; but that was
his plan, and although, from the particular conditions, he
actually pierced the enemy's center, still, having done so,
the subsequent attack fell upon the flank originally in-
tended, while the other flank was kept in check by the rear
ships of Nelson's own division. These, as they advanced
in column, lay athwart the line by which the enemy's van,
if it tacked, would approach the rear, or other flank ; and
they thus prevented its approach by that route until too
late to be effective.
Nelson, who was a thoughtful as well as a daring tac-
tician, expressed reasons for attacking one flank rather
than another, under differing conditions in which the fleets
presented themselves; but, speaking generally, the rear
was the better to attack, because the van could not, and
cannot, come as soon to help the rear as the rear can the
van. It has to turn round, to begin with; and, before
turning round, its commander has to make up his mind,
which few men do quickly, unless they have reached con-
clusions beforehand. All this means time. Besides, the
assailant can more easily place himself in the way of such
new movement of the van, than he can of the rear coming up
on the line of advance it already has. Still, there are some
reasons in favor of the van. Nelson in 1801 said that in
case of encountering a Russian fleet he would attack the
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 49
van ; because injury to it would throw the enemy's order
into confusion, £rom which the Russians were not good
enough maneuverers to recover. That is a special reason,
not a geneiaL It takes account of a particular circum-
stance, as a general on shore does of a particular locality.
When Farragut passed the Mobile forts his van was
thrown into confusion, and all know what a critical
moment that was. It matters little what the incident
is, if the confusion is produced.
In the Battle of the Japan Sea the attack again was on
a flank, and that the van. Whether this was due to previ-
ous purpose of the Japanese, or merely arose from the con-
ditions as they presented themselves, I do not know ; but
its tendency certainly would be to cause confusion. I do
not wish, however, to argue here a question of tactics. My
subject is strategy, and I am using tactics simply to illus-
trate the predominance, everywhere, under all conditions
and from the nature of things, of the one great principle of
concentration; and that, too, in the specific method of so
distributing your own force as to be superior to the enemy
in one quarter, while in the other you hold him in check
long enough to permit your main attack to reach its full
result. That necessary time may be half an hour on a
field of battle ; in a campaign it may be days, weeks, per-
haps more.
In further illustration, I wish now to apply the same
principle and method to the question of coast defense and
attack. When a country is at war, its whole frontier, and
the whole frontier of its opponent, are subject to attack.
This constitutes the defensive aspect of frontiers. They
also can be used throughout their whole extent as points
from which attack can be made ; and this is their offensive
aspect, on one side and on the other. In land warfare, as
between France and Germany in 1870, or as in the wars of
Richelieu of which we have been speaking, it will com-
50 NAVAL STRATEGY
monly happen that the belligerents adjoin one another, that
the political frontier is not only common, but identical —
the same line for each. This is not indeed invariably the
case. The late war between Japan and Russia was fought
mainly on Chinese soil, and Belgium has been proverbially
the battle ground for quarrels in which her inhabitants had
little national interest Nevertheless, the military frontier,
the line between the two fronts of operations, is substan-
tially common to each belligerent. In maritime warfare
this cannot be the case. Here the sea constitutes for each
of the two opponents the political frontier, which in so far
is common, but from its width is not identical. The inter-
vening sea is less a line than a position, central between
the two, dividing them from one another, and in so far re-
producing the characteristic noted of the Danube. It will
readily be recognized that the power which really controls
the sea, as Great Britain at times has done, possesses ex-
actly the Danube advantage ; she can throw superior force
in either direction, for defense or attack.
The war between Great Britain and the United States in
1812 presented an example of both kinds of frontier.
There was the land frontier, between Canada and the
United States ; and there was the American ocean frontier,
against which Great Britain operated as she chose, because
she commanded the sea, the central position, intervening
between America and the British Islands. In my ^^ War
of 1812'* I have discussed the general situation as embraced
in the two frontiers, and also the special conditions of each,
as indicative of where the offensive should have been as-
sumed by the United States, and where the defensive ; it
being evident that all parts were not equally favorable to
offensive action, nor did the country possess forces ade-
quate so to act everywhere. I mention these discussions
because, whether my own estimates were accurate or not,
they serve to illustrate the fact that in any frontier line, or
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 61
any strategic front of operations, or any line of battle, of-
fensive effort may, and therefore should, be concentrated in
one part, not distributed along the whole. This possibility,
and a convenient way of conceiving it, Jomini expresses in
an aphorism which may be commended to memory, be-
cause it sums up one important consideration concerning
any military disposition whatever ; whether it be the stra-
tegic front of operations in a campaign, or a tactical order
of battle, or a frontier. Every such situation, Jomini says,
may be properly regarded as a line ; and every line divides,
logically and actually, into three parts, — ^the center, and
the two extremes, or flanks.
Guard yourselves, of course, from imagining three equal
parts. We are not dealing here with mathematics, but with
military conceptions. For practical results, let us apply at
once to the United States of to-day. The United States
has a long ocean frontier, broken at Mexico by the inter-
position of land, as the French maritime frontier is broken
at the Pyrenees; yet the coast lines, like the French,
possess a certain maritime continuity, in that ships can
pass from end to end by sea. In such cases, it may be
said without exaggeration that an ocean frontier is con-
tinuous. At present, the United States has one frontier
which is strictly continuous, by land as by water, from the
coast of Maine to the Rio Grande. There are in it, by
natural division, three principal parts: the Atlantic, the
Gulf, and the Straits of Florida. I do not deny that for
purposes of study further convenient subdivisions may be
made; but it may fairly be claimed that these three are
clear, are primary, and are principal They are very un-
equal in length, and, from the military standpoint, in
importance; for while the peninsula of Florida does not
rank very high in the industrial interests of the nation, a
superior hostile fleet securely based in the Stiaits of Florida
could effectively control intercourse by water between the
62 NAVAL STRATEGY
two flanks. It would possess central position ; and in vir-
tue of that central position, its superiority need not be
over the whole United States navy, should that be divided
on each side of the central position. The supposed enemy,
in such position, would need only to be decisively superior
to each of the divisions lying on either side; whereas,
were they united, superiority would require to be over
the whole. It was this condition which made Cuba for the
first century of our national existence a consideration of the
first importance in our international relations. It flanked
national communications, commercial and militaiy. We
know that there exists in our country an element of wis-
dom which would treat such a situation, which geography
has constituted for us, as two boys do an apple. This
would divide the fleet between the two coasts, and call it
fair to both ; because, so it is reasoned, — or rat;her argued,
— defending both. It certainly, however, would not be
concentration, nor effective.
Before passing on, note the striking resemblance between
the Florida peninsula and that of Korea. Togo, at Ma-
sampo, was to Rozhestvensky and the Russians at Vladi-
vostok just as a hostile fleet in the Straits of Florida
would be to American divisions in the Gulf and at
Hampton Roads. In like manner at an earlier period
Togo and Kamimura, working apart but on interior lines,
separated the three fine fighting ships in Vladivostok from
the Port Arthur division.
The United States, however, has an even more urgent
situation as to frontier in its Atlantic and Pacific coasts.
If my claim is correct, in the instance of France, that a
water frontier is continuous when passage from end to end
by water is practicable, this is also continuous; and the
battle-fleet has demonstrated the fact within the past few
years. The United States, then, has a maritime frontier
line from Eastport, Maine, to Puget Sound; and, like other
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 68
militaiy lines, it divides into three principal parts inunedi-
ately obvious, — the Atlantic Coast, the Pacific Coast, and
the line between. This summary will not be any more
true, nor any more useful for reflection, when the line
passes by Panama instead of the Straits of Magellan ; but
it certainly will be more obvious. It then will be seen
easily, as now may be seen certainly, that the important
part of the long line in the present case, as in the future,
is the center, because that insures or prevents passage in
force from side to side ; the transfer of force ; in short, the
communications. This reproduces again the Danube posi-
tion, and also the chain of Spanish positions from Genoa to
Belgium. It is once more the central position, which we
have met before in such varying localities and periods ; but
the central position of Panama has over that now open
to us, by Magellan, the advantage of interior lines, of
which class of lines indeed the contrast between the exist-
ing and the future routes offers a notable illustration.
In order to see clearly here, we must recur to statements
before made. In what consists the advantage of central
position? In the position itself, however strong it be?
No; but in the use made of it. The central position is
contributory, not principal ; one element of a situation, but
not the only one, nor even the chief. It is of little use to
have a central position if the enemy on both sides is
stronger than you. In short, it is power plus position
that constitutes an advantage over power without position ;
or, more instructively, equations of force are composed of
power and position in vaiying degrees, surplus in one
tending to compensate for deficiency in the other. If the
mobile force, army in the field or navy, be great enough
to maintain itself alone in any part of the field, or on any
section of the frontier, it holds the central position in
virtue of its own strength, and that no matter where it
may be. If the American fleet be strong enough to force
64 NAVAL STRATEGY
its way from one coast to the other, it has the central posi-
tion by virtue of its own power. When the Panama
Canal is fortified, and its locks insured against treachery,
the fleet will have power plus position, and fortified posi-
tion at that ; till then, the fleet must depend upon its own
power alone to control the center of the line, the freedom
of movement from flank to flank, — from the Atlantic to
the Pacific, or vice versd. So long as the fleet is strong
enough for that, against any particular enemy, the center
of the frontier is secure, and consequently the communi-
cations. Then, from the pure military point of view, all
that either flank requires is to be strong enough to resist
attack until the fleet comes to its aid. That is, it requires
adequate fortification, in the broad sense which includes
harbor works, guns, garrison, and torpedo equipment ; and
it should have also an organization of land forces which
can prevent an enemy's army from establishing itself in
impregnable control of some decisive position.
It follows, of course, that where position is assured, and
in proportion as it is assured, less force may be needed.
Still, if the United States have an enemy in the Atlantic
and one in the Pacific, no advantage of position will
dispense from the necessity of having a fleet stronger than
either the one or the other singly. That is a One-Power
standard, the minimum now needed by the United States.
The National Review for July, 1909, contained an article
entitled " Navy and Empire," in which occurs the follow-
ing definition, in my judgment correct : ** The Two-Power
standard must mean the maintenance of two fleets, the one
superior in all arms to the foreign fleet next in order of
strength,'' that is, the next strongest to the British, ^^ the
other superior in all arms to the foreign fleet next again
in order of strength." I do not here say that the United
States needs a Two-Power standard, as Great Britain may ;
but, if she did, that is a correct definition of such stand-
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 66
aid. Taking present conditions in Europe, and present na-
val programmes, the Two-Power standard requires that
Great Britain have in home waters a fleet distinctly superior
to that of Germany, and that she shall be able coincidently
to place in the Mediterranean one equally superior to those
of Austria and Italy combined.
The interior position will enable you to get there sooner,
but with that its advantage ends. It does not give also
the ^ most men*' needed to complete the familiar aphorism.
The position in itself gives no larger numbers ; and when
left it serves only the defensive purpose of a refuge, a base
of supplies, a line of communication. It cannot be carried
to the field of battle, as a reinforcement. But if you have
an enemy in the Atlantic, and also one in the Pacific,
and are superior to each singly, though not to both com-
bined, central position may give an opportunity of dealing
with one or the other singly and decisively ; of preventing
their junction in a force which you cannot meet. So,
through the Russian mismanagement, Togo dealt in suc-
cession with the divisions of Port Arthur, of Vladivostok,
and of the Baltic.
It may be said there is here a great deal of ^^ if* and of
**but.'* Quite so; and every time you tackle a concrete
problem of war you will find " if " and " but " playing an
enormous part It is the **ifs" and the ^^buts" which
constitute the dilemma of the commander-in-chief; but
they also, when solved or overcome, are his title to honor.
Study the '* ifis " and the ^' buts " that hung around Napo-
leon before Austerlitz. They will be found in conveniently
condensed form in Ropes* life of the Emperor. Remember,
too, that within ten years you have yourselves witnessed
just such a problem, a game played under your own eyes.
Japan — Togo — had a central position, interior lines, and a
force superior to either of the two enemy's divisions, that
of the Baltic and that of the Far East, which lay on each
56 NAVAL STRATEGY
fiide of him. These hostile bodies were separated by a
distance little inferior to that from Hampton Roads to
San Francisco, by Magellan ; vastly greater than that by
the Panama CanaL United, the two Russian fleets would
be so &r superior that it may be questioned whether Togo
could have faced them early in the war ; if he could, it
would have been through superior intrinsic efficiency not
through equality of numbers. Can it be supposed that
there were not plenty of ^^ ifs '' and *^ buts " in the months
preceding the hour when he signalled his fleet, ^ The
safety of the Empire depends upon this day's results?''
We have assurance that it was so ; that from the flrst
the Japanese through their inferiority of numbers were
trammeled by the necessity of hosbanding their battleships,
and that the deepest anxiety, even alarm, was felt as the
unexpected tenacity of Port Arthur protracted the time
when the fleet before the place could be withdrawn and
refitted to meet the Baltic fleet. Granting the truth of the
signal when made, how vastly truer, how very doubtful the
conditions, if the Port Arthur division had continued in
the condition of the previous summer, or if Rozhestvensky
had arrived ten months earlier. But^ Rozhestvens^ ar-
rived too late ; hut^ when he did, the Port Arthur division
no longer existed.
Even so. Admiral Togo still had " ifs " and ** buts '' to
harass him. A Japanese officer on the fleet staff wrote of
the moment before Rozhestvensky's arrival:
** The time when we felt the greatest anxiety was two
or three days before the battle. We had expected the
Russian fleet to be sighted by our southermost vessels by
May 28, or at latest 25 ; but no report came from them, nor
did we receive from any sources any information about the
Russian fleet Now we began to doubt whether the enemy
hsA not entered the Pacific and gone round to the Strait of
Soya or Tsugaru. Being in the dark as to the route the
enemy had taketi, it was the most trying time for us. Even
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 67
Admiral Togo, although very strong in his conyiction that
the enemy must come oy Tsushima, seemed to have felt a
certain uneasiness at that time."
Consider the ^ifs'' and *^buts" that confronted the
Archduke Charles in that campaign of 1796, which has
been used as an illustration to initiate this treatment of
strategy. The period of his operations coincided, broadly,
with the brilliant successes of Bonaparte in his immortal
campaign of that same year in Italy — successes which of
themselves constituted a gigantic (f for Austrian calcula-
tion. The Archduke's inferiority to his own two immedi-
ate opponents, Jourdan and Moreau, {f they were united,
introduced innumerable {ft and huU peculiar to himself.
All these he met, and in the end overcame, by opposing
concentration to dispersion ; by the masterly use made of
the central position assumed, and the interior lines used
by him, in virtue of the strong natural advantages of the
Danube. This river, and its tributaries from tiie south,
he utilized as Bonaparte during the same season utilized
the smaller river Mincio, the outlet of Lake Gkirda, in
Italy. The Archduke turning upon Jourdan, to the north,
threw a decidedly superior mass on the left flank of the
general French advance, which may be considered his
own right His own left flank, south of the Danube, he
refused. That is, opposing inferior numbers to Moreau
on the south of the river, he instructed his subordinate in
charge of that operation to dispute every stream, but not
to allow himself to be drawn into a pitched battle ; on the
contrary, to retire continually, keeping his force substan-
tially unimpaired. In connection with these orders, he used
an illuminating expression, which illustrates emphatically
that exclusiveness of purpose which Napoleon eulogized
and practiced; the singleness of mind and concentration
of effort by which a great commander solves his {ft and
huU^ by fastening tenaciously on the one thing needfuL
68 > NAVAL STRATEGY
Doubts may be many; truth is one. ^It matters not,*^
said the Archduke, *^ if Moieau gets to Viemia, provided I
meantime crush Jourdan/'
In this fine resolve we have the reply to those who
would divide the battle-fleet between the Atlantic and
Pacific. Had the Archduke divided his force, half against
Jourdan and half against Moreau, it would have mattered
greatly had Moreau reached Vienna, for, the northern Aus-
trians also being inferior and compelled to retreat con-
tinually, Jourdan would have been on hand to join his
colleague. As it was, when Moreau was nearest Vienna
Jourdan was back at the Rhine in rapid retreat; and
there was nothing left for Moreau but to retire precipi-
tately, or else be cut off by an enemy superior to himself,
confronting and intercepting him on his line of communi-
cations. The situation, in short, was that of Rozhestvensky,
and like it entailed results unfortunate though not equally
disastrous.
The issue would have been the same, even had Vienna
fallen. Moscow fell in 1812, and we know the result.
Napoleon, master of the center of Europe, had attempted,
from his central position to act simultaneously on both
flanks — Russia and Spain; and even his then gigantic
power was imequal to the strain, although his instructions
to Marmont show that he intended to restrict his forces in
the Peninsula to a defensive rCle. There may be for us ex-
cellent reasons for stationing our fleet in the Pacific or in
the Atlantic, but there is no good reason for dividing it be-
tween the two. Choose one flank or the other upon which
the fleet shall act offensively, as a fleet should act, — must
act; and refuse the other flank, keep it on the defensive as
far as naval action is concerned. To use the Archduke's
words: ^ It makes no matter what happens there, if the
fleet crush its antagonist." You will understand, of course,
that it is not meant that nothing disagreeable can happen,
EXPLANATION
0 French divisions
■ Austrian divisions
ustrian Centre, on Rhine
ustrian Left, on Rhine
ustrian Right, on Rhine
3urdan, Northern French
[oreau. Southern French
^notion, Austrian Centre and Left
•^^Ainction, Austrian Main Body and Right (Jourdan
begins to retreat)
ustrian Left disputing Moreau*s advance
imuitaneous Positions of Jourdan and Moreau,
August 10
imuitaneous Positions of Jourdan and Moreau,
September 9
'*'-%^-.-» Austrian converging Retreats and French
Advances
•<• •<•• Jourdan *s Retreat
:::t Austrian Pursuit of Jourdan
>>> Moreau*s Advance, where not coincident
with Austrian Retreat
««« Moreau*s Retreat
4-4- Austrian March towards South to intercept
Moreau
.^
CAMPAIGN IN GERMANY
JUNE- OCTOBER 1796
Showing French advance on two exterior
lines; Austrian conversing retreats to
central line of Danube ; Austrian concen-
tration north of Danube against northern
French; and consequent divergent re-
treats of both Frencii armies.
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 59
no misfortune ; it would have been exceasively disagreeable
to the AuBtrians to have Moreau reach Vienna. In 1898,
the Flying Squadron was kept in Hampton Roads, mainly
to assure our northern coast that nothing disagi-eeabla
should occur. Wars in which nobody geta hurt are not
within our purview. In a military sense, as affecting ul-
timate national safety and victory, it will not matter if one
coast suffer raid, blockade, bombardment, or capture, if
meanwhile the enemy's fleet be destroyed. With such de-
struction every other loss is retrievable, provided the
country, which is not willing to make military preparation
beforehand, proves willing to endure the burden of such
exertions as may be necessary to reduce to submission an
invader whose cotninunications and retreat are both cut off.
An army under such conditions may exist off the counby,
as, for instance, Hannibal did ; but there can be only one
end to the wastage of men and of military supplies if
severed from t)ie sea. It may be easy to get into a country
from which it will be difficult to withdraw. The sea was
tiie security of Wellington, and more recently of the
Japanese, as the loss of it was the ruin of Hannibal and of
the French in Egypt, in 1798-1801, almost without further
effort.
What remuns of it aU, therefore, is not that central posi-
tion, Ulterior lines, or concentrated force, each singly or
all united, as Togo had them, confer security or certainty.
The result from all is merely that they confer distinct ad-
vantage ; that in an equation of force, they being added to
one or the other side are not zero quantities, nor small
quantities, but of great determining weight; that to over-
come them, the force on the other side must be largely in-
creased. If we assume the aggregate Russian navy to have
been twenty-five per cent stronger than the Japaaese, it
would be decisively supeiior to the latter did the totals
meet Divide it in half, and each fraction is but sisty-two
60 NAVAL STRATEGY
and one-half per cent of the enemy, who holds a central
position, and is able to move towards either by a line shorter
than that which each has to cover to reach the other. On
mere mathematical calculation, this signifies that in the
collision the inferior fraction, in order that its own side
may win, must so damage its superior enemy as to reduce
him, not only to, but below, the sixty-two and one-half per
cent. Whatever the ultimate result, — and some chance
will enter, — it is at least doubtful whether the first frac-
tion, so outnumbered, will inflict such damage. If it does
not, and the concentrated force wins, it will have owed its
success to its interior lines, its central position, and the
fact that, though inferior, it was concentrated. It turns
upon the second enemy with a preponderance greatly re-
duced from that of the first collision — reduced perhaps to
terms of bare equality ; but there is now present with it,
and not with its new antagonist, the great moral factor
which redoubles energy, which Napoleon has said domi-
nates war, — the flush of confldence engendered by success.
CHAPTER IV
mSTORIGAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS
{OofUinued)
jA S we are about, at this point, to resume the histori-
y^L cal narratiye of the war of France under Riohe*
/-\ lieu against combined Anatria and Spain, I
^ -^^ will remind you of that which was remarked at
the beginning of the preceding lecture, — namely : that the
campaign of the Archduke Charles in the Danube valley
illustrates the principles of concentration, of central posi-
tion, and of interior lines from the side of land warfare
only ; that the war between France and Austria, which was
afterwards considered, and which requires still some further
treatment, presents a case wherein both land and sea power
are involved; and that there is to follow the instance of
Cromwell^s naval war with the Dutch, in which illustra-
tion is confined to a naval campaign. This last is the par-
ticular subject of this present lecture.
Thus far the position of France and her contest with
the House of Austria in its two branches, Germany and
Spain, in the days of Richelieu and Mazarin, has been used
as an historical instance, illustrative of certain principles of
strategy. In the historical narrative we paused at a mo-
ment which may be defined not inaccurately as coinciding
with the death of Richelieu, — in December, 1642; stop-
ping there in order to use the instruction of the war, so
far, in application to those general principles. In this ap-
plication free digression to other historical examples was
admitted for purposes of illustration ; for it is desirable
to enforce the uniformity of principles to be traced in very
62 NAVAL STRATEGY
diverse military conditions. It is, I think, a distinct gain
for a man to realize that the military principle of concen-
tration applies to the designing of a ship, to the composi-
tion of a fleet, or to the peace distribution of a navy, as
effectually as it does to the planning of a campaign or to
an order of battle.
I now resume the historical narrative from the death of
Richelieu; purposing, however, to put forward only so
much of an account as may serve to give the background
of the course of events, and to point a military moraL
After Richelieu died, the control of France passed within
a brief period into the hands of Mazarin, whose general ex-
ternal policy was in direct continuation of that of Henry
IV and Richelieu. The European conditions still were,
France against the two branches of the House of Austria;
but the general war, which in its beginnings resembled a
confused turmoil, in which it is difficult to trace any co-
herence or distinctness of character, because of the multi-
tude of events and of the cross purposes of many of the
combatants, has gradually assumed more definiteness of
outline. In brief, it may be said that now, allied to
France are Holland, Sweden, and the north German
princes; while with Spain and Austria stands Bavaria,
with southern Germany in general. Beginning as a re-
ligious war, it has become chiefly political in objects.
The effort of France has become more concentrated on
the right flank of her enemies — her own left; that is,
upon Germany, and especially upon Belgium, then called
the Spanish Netherlands. In Italy she marks time, and
much the same in Catalonia, where the rebellion of the in-
habitants supports her. Meantime her internal troubles
had been put down by Richelieu. The internal power of
the state has been concentrated and strengthened, as well
as her external effort. She has developed generals and
is winning victories. Spain, on the contrary, has been
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 68
steadily decUning in efficiency, and is embarrassed by re-
volt in Catalonia, as well as in Portugal, which then (1640)
regained the independence of which she had been deprived
by Spain in 1680. The Catalans failed to achieve the like
success.
Thus France waxed stronger and stronger, Spain and the
Austrian cause weaker and weaker. In 1646, the French
and Swedes penetrated Bavaria, laid the country under con-
tribution, and by this means detached it from the Austrian
cause. Then the French in turn forsook their allies the
Swedes, who were operating in Grermany, and threw the
weight of their efforts upon the Netherlands, where Holland
was aiding them, but no longer veiy zealously. The suc-
cesses of the allies caused jealousy of each other. Con-
centration of effort between them became impossible, for
each still dreaded seeing the other become too powerful.
This could not be but markedly so with Holland, confined
chiefly to naval power, under conditions which made it im-
possible to vie with France in land force or extension of
territory. Holland consequently could not see with ease
the approach of the French boundary towards her own,
through new acquisitions in the Netherlands.
The result was that Holland, which for some time had
been lukewarm in spirit and null in action, made early in
1648 a separate peace with Spain, abandoning France ; and
late in the same year, in October, France and Sweden, with
their allies, made the peace of Westphalia with the German
Empire and Bavaria, which threw over their ally, Spain.
These transactions marked the end of the Thirty Years'
War. Spain refused terms, and hostilities continued be-
tween her and France alone, neither state having allies.
The gain of France at this moment was consequently taken
from Grermany only. She obtained the country we know as
Alsace, which remained hers until the Franco-German war
of 1870. This advanced her border to that part of the
64 NAVAL STRATEGY
Rhine through a length of a hundred miles ; and her hold
upon the river was confirmed by the cession of two f or^
tresses, Philipsburg and Breisach, on the German side of
the stream, one at each extremity of the boundary of Alsace.
It will be instructive to compare the position of these two
with that of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajo^ in the Peninsular
War,^ which defined the front of operations between the
British in Portugal and the French in Spain ; suppof)ing
the control of the party that possessed them over the ter-
ritory in their rear, as well as constituting a basis for
offensive movements forward. The capture of the two in
1812 was the essential preliminaiy to Wellington's subse-
quent advance, which expelled the French from Spain.
Coincident with the Westphalia settiement, which left
France and Spain at war for ten years more, a new force
appeared upon the European stage. This was England
under Oliver Cromwell, whose strong hand and military
power imposed internal order in the state, and thus enabled
him to exert on external policy the influence which the
Stuart kings were never able to effect, because continually
at variance with the people in Parliament. Charles I. was
beheaded in January, 1649, three months after the peace of
Westphalia was signed; and for nearly ten years following —
that is, coincident with the continuing war between France
and Spain — existed the absolute power of the English
Protector. One of the first and most important steps of the
new government was a reorganization of the navy, under
the auspices which had made the contemporary English
army a singularly efficient body. In this reconstitution of
the navy there were two decisive features : 1, in place of a
force in large part irregular, depending much upon merchant
ships impressed as occasion demanded, was substituted a
regular standing navy of vessels built especially for the
state and for war ; 2, the handling of this force, in disci-
1 See map ficing page 94.
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 65
pline, in tactics, and m strategy, was committed to military
men, army generals and colonels, who made of it an effec-
tive military organization. The traditions of the seamen of
that day did not fit them for originating such military fea-
tures ; they had to be imparted by men who were soldiers
before they became seamen. The result was a military
navy such as in the same exclusive sense had never existed
before.
With this formidable weapon, which was backed by an
army of equal efficiency, seasoned by a half-dozen years of
war and exultant in almost constant victory, the island state
looked out upon Europe, and that with no friendly eyes.
An intensely Protestant republic, she saw two Roman
Catholic kingdoms at war. A maritime and commercial
community, she saw across the water, in Holland, a body
of rivals, — Protestant, indeed, and republic, in which might
be presumed a bond of sympathy ; but there were old griev-
ances unsettled and present inequalities in matters of navi-
gation and commerce. For fifty years back, as the Dutch
with English assistance had freed themselves progressively
from the Spanish yoke, they had been undermining English
shipping by the competition of cheaper ships and cheaper
wages, until the carrying trade of England was largely in
Dutch bottoms.
The motives which underlay Cromwell's policy remain
obscure and disputed, because the policy itself was in many
respects tortuous and deceitful. I think, however, that the
secret lies in the fact that he was before all a religious man,
in politics as in common life. That is, besides an unques-
tionable personal piety, he looked upon the course of events
throughout the world as ordered by Providence, whose in-
tentions he understood, and with whom he was to co-operate.
Where a man is perfectly certain, as Cromwell was, that he
and his party are possessed of the truth and of God's lead-
ing, there is danger that the conviction may induce unscru-
66 NAVAL STRATEGY
pulousness, conviction that the end justifies the means.
The statesmanship of that day furnished no corrective.
Few statesmen then got so far as to think that any jus-
tification at all as to means was needed, if the end was
desirable.
Protestantism, of extreme Calvinistic type in doctrine,
and in church government Independency, or, as we now
say, Congregationalism, were thus identified with the will
of God. To sustain Protestantism on the Continent as
well as at home was to carry out that will ; and it was to
be done by diplomacy and by the sword, the two chief in-
struments of international relations. In the condition of
the world the problem was military. It was one of combi-
nation and of force ; while in the insular position of Eng-
land, and in its highly organized army and navy, Cromwell
held in his hands the balance of power, the casting vote, so
long, at any rate, as the two chief Roman Catholic states
were at war, as they remained throughout his life. France
and Spain soon realized that between them stood a Protes-
tant zealot, able to turn the scale.
Cromwell's first move was to attempt a political concen-
tration of all the Protestant forces. Besides advances to
other Protestant states, there was proposed to Holland
cooperation ; not by beggarly alliance, but by a political
union of the two republics. To this Holland naturally de-
murred, as she at that time possessed most of the carrying
trade of the world ; and for the moment was easy in mind
as to her dangerous neighbor, France. Besides, England's
past history and present power indicated that to Holland,
as the weaker partner, union would mean subjection, if not
absorption. The proposition fell through ; but let us not
&il to note here that it was revived, and in effect accepted,
forty years later, when William III., a Dutch prince, sat on
the English throne. Then, the very concentration which
Cromwell had attempted in vain dragged down the power
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 67
of LfOois XIV. when at its height; bat then also Holland
fell permanently into the second place, although it was her
own ruler that reigned in England and inspired the action
of combined Europe.
The reply to Holland's refusal was the English Naviga-
tion Act, aimed, and aimed successfully, at Holland's supre-
macy in the carrying trade. This was passed in October,
1651, and in May, 1652, hostilities began. The Act proba-
bly was not the determinatiye cause of the war. It was
only contributory ; but to discuss the causes in the then en-
tangled state of international relations is foreign to our pur-
pose, which has to do with the course of the war, not with
its origins. A two years' struggle between the republics
followed ; and this furnishes some apposite instruction on
the subject of concentration, as well as suggests reflections
upon international conditions contemporary with ourselves.
Before the time of Cromwell's government the English
navy was seen in the Mediterranean only rarely and ex-
ceptionally. Merchant vessels trading there were expected
to look out for themselves. What is known to us as the
convoy system, though practiced to some extent in the
Narrow Seas and in the Atlantic traffic with France and
Spain, had not been extended to the Mediterranean. The
trade there was by a chartered company, the Levant Com-
pany ; and the ships for their self -protection were of a size
and armament which, according to the standards of that
day, made them of little use for other commerce. The
Mediterranean trade of England had been among the lesser
of her commercial interests, and here also the Dutch had
been supplanting her, both in merchant and naval vessels.
Under the first Stuart kings, that is, till the day of Crom-
well's power, a vigorous foreign policy had been impossi-
ble ; because to maintain it Parliament must be summoned
for supplies, and would make correspondent demands for
concessions, which the sovereign was unwilling to grant.
68 NAVAL STRATEGY
Hence the navy was insnffioient in numbers, giving free
scope to piracy. Barbaiy vessels swarmed even in Eng-
lish waters; one hundred and fifty English vessels had
been captured by them in the six years ending with 1651.
French and Spanish privateers made similarly free with
English ships during the period preceding CromweU.
The Commonwealth changed all this. To an extent
never before known the State charged itself systemati-
cally with the protection of commerce by the navy. This,
as Corbett points out, necessarily introduced into naval
thought a new strategic idea ; that, namely, of controlling
commercial routes. To control a commercial route neces-
sitates two strategic &ctors: (1) a mobile navy, and
(2) local ports near the route, upon which the navy can
rest as bases of operations. In seas where the State has
no national possessions, the navy first comes and depends
upon friendly harbors, as Dewey in 1898 depended on Hong
Kong until war was declared ; but the inconvenience and
uncertainty of such dependence leads directly to acquisi-
tion of ports. The entrance of the English navy into the
Mediterranean, to protect English shipping, led through a
series of years and makeshifts to Gibraltar, Malta, Cyprus ;
ultimately to Suez, Aden, and beyond. Incidentally, Eng-
land at one time occupied Tangier; at another, Corsica;
and for long periods, Minorca.
Thus, when war broke out in 1652, both Dutch and
English had squadrons in the Mediterranean, besides the
main fleets in home waters. The English squadron made
its headquarters in Leghorn, the chief port of Tuscany;
the Grand Duke of which found profit and motive in the
advantage to his dominion, as an emporium and center of
British trade. The most part of the Dutch in the Medi-
terranean at the outbreak of the war were concentrated off
Toulon, for reasons which even now are not known cer-
tainly. England was formally at peace with both the other
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 69
belligerents, France and Spain, but as between them Crom-
well's policy at the moment inclined to Spain ; a condition
which caused Porto Longone, in Elba, then a Spanish pos-
session, to be hosptable to the English, France under
Mazarines governance was less disposed than Spain then
was to recognize a republic which had become such by
beheading a king. But both states soon began to bid for
Cromwell's support
A point on which your attention should specially &sten
is that under the conditions of that day the Mediterranean
and the North Sea reproduced the problem with which
Great Britain is to-day again confronted in them, and also
that which confronts* the United States in the coincident
demands of the Atlantic and the Pacific. It is an interest-
ing circumstance that we now see the British navy con-
centrated, up to eighty-five per cent of it^ battleship force,
just where the English navy had to cling in the early days
of Cromwell; and for the same reason, namely, the rise of
a new maritime power near to the home shores. Before 1666
the provinces which now constitute Holland were simply
Spanish dependencies. For the next forty years, through-
out the reign of Elizabeth, they were occupied in the strug-
gle which gave them independence, largely by the help of
England, in the course of which their commercial and
naval power developed. When Cromwell became Pro-
tector, Dutch merchant shipping much outnumbered that
of England, while the two navies at the opening of the
war may be considered substantially equal in force. These
conditions, and the momentary distribution of the navies
which thence resulted, had a noticeable effect upon the
course of the conflict known as the First Dutch War,
1652-1654, which went on coincidently with that between
France and Spain. These were not the sole factors, but
they were the principal. The political constitution of the
Dutch Republic, a loose confederation of provinces with
70 NAVAL STRATEGY
mutual jealousies, interfered with the unity of administra-
tion and organization essential to military efficiency, while at
the same instant the strong militaiy sense of Cromwell was
making the EngUsh navy a military organization in spirit
and in form, which it never before had been* Nevertheless,
the fortunes of the war fluctuated with the observance of
concentration.
When hostilities opened, the Dutch Mediterranean force
was superior in the aggregate. The English, inferior in to-
tal, were also divided. One part was in Leghorn, with the
officer in chief command ; but the other division was far
away, up the Levant on convoy business. I do not pro-
pose to give at length the movements of the several English
detachments. Suffice it to say that the Dutch commander
placed himself between them ; first by watching, or, as this
measure is commonly called, blockading Leghorn (Position
1, a) ; then by judicious movements on interior lines, by
which, while he concealed his position and intentions, he
maintained always a central position, a position between
the two. In the result, the English Levant detachment,
reinforced as the custom still was by some of the stronger
merchant ships, was brought to action off Elba, (i) Being
distinctly inferior, it was well beaten and took refuge in
Porto Longone, with the loss of one ship ; which, however,
was recaptured afterwards in the neutral waters of Leghorn
by the English ships lying there, and rejoined those at
Porto Longone. Tliis battle was on August 28, 1652.
The Dutch admiral continued to ply between the island
and Leghorn, maintaining his advantage of position. The
two English commanders, however, could communicate,
and it was arranged that they should tiy to unite and fight
after the Elba ships had been repaired. The home govern-
ment, having become dissatisfied with the Leghorn man,
had transferred command to the one in Elba, who gave
careful instructions for eveiy contingency he could foresee.
' ^ A Dutch and English in Mediterranean
1652-53
POSITION I
Dutch
English
(O
Montd^Crlsto
Leghorn
yd
.(0
X e
POSITION 2
Montt^risti
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 71
The odds, however, both of numbeTS and of positiim, were
against him; as well as one of Holland's best seamen, in
possession of the central position. Ako, something which
had not been foreseen occurred, — a chance, — the total re-
sult being that the L^hom diviBion was brought to action
singly, beaten, and the whole save one taken. (Position
2, c.) This was eaily in March, 1653, six months after
the first fight. There was then nothing left for the new
commander-in-chief but to retreat with the Elba ships
out of the Straits. This he did (<2), abandoning the
Mediterranean, to which the English did not return dur-
ing the war.
Meanwhile, after the first of these engagements, both the
English officers concerned, as well as the (Commonwealth's
diplomatic agent at Leghorn, had written pressing demands
to the home government to send reinforcements, in order
to hold the ground and sustain the honor of the flag ; and
this the government undertook to do. The early events of
the war in the North Sea and Channel had upon the whole
favored the English, who then were in greater strength;
but on the one occasion when substantially equal forces
met under equal conditions, off Plymouth, in August,
1652, the result had been a drawn battle as regards the
fleets. (Position 1, a.) Indeed,as the Dutch admiral, Ruyter,
succeeded on that occasion in forcing his way through with
a convoy, losing neither ship of war nor merchant vessel,
while the English retired into port and there remained, vic-
tory might be claimed by the Dutch. Ruyter saw his
convoy clear into the Atlantic, picked up some returning
merchant ships, and stood back up Channel, where he
joined the main fleet, which had gone to sea under an
Admiral De With, (b) Upon this junction followed an
action with the enemy, known as the Battle of Kentish
Knock, September 28, 1652. (c) The Dutch again were
inferior in numbers, as in quality of vessels; but the re-
72 NAVAL STRATEGY
spective strengths, sixty-eight and sixty-foor, so far ap-
proached equality as to suggest the reflection that their
great superiority in the Mediterranean was dearly pur-
chased by inferiority at the determining center of the
war.
The English won a distinct victory. Encouraged by
this success, and thinking it so decisive that, combined
with the lateness of the season, the Dutch would not come
out again in force, the English Government divided its
fleet on more than one mission. (Position 2 a^o^a^ a.)
Among others, heed was taken of the cry from the Med-
iterranean; a squadron of twenty sail was detached to
it, and started. The Dutch, however, had not been
discouraged. They sent out a body of three hundred mer-
chant ships, bound to the Atlantic, convoyed by seventy-
three ships of war under their then greatest admiral,
Tromp. The English main fleet under Blake, weakened
to thirty-seven ships by the detachments, was badly de-
feated on November 80. (i) The division on its way to
the Mediterranean was then recalled {c) and rejoined the
fleet. In consequence of this disaster, the Channel was
filled for some weeks with Dutch cruisers, which there
was no force to check. Also, when the news reached
Leghorn, the Grand Duke, who had been offended already
by the violation of the neutrality of his waters, changed
his policy, and insisted that he could no longer permit
his ports to be used by a belligerent This precipitated
the unfortunate attempt of the Mediterranean officers to
unite and fight, already narrated.
Instructed by these experiences in naval matters, the
English Government, which then was thoroughly military
in spirit and competent in act, concentrated their entire
navy in home waters. When Tromp returned from the
Atlantic with a convoy ten weeks later, in February, 1668,
his seventy ships were met by eighty English, and a run-
^ORTH SEA
Ac^
,
V
3|.^
Battles X
Dutch ci>
English ^^
y 0 RT H
J
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 78
ning fight up Channel followed. (<2) The embarrassment
of the convoy was of coarse a further disadvantage to the
Dutch admiral^ additional to inferior numbers. Neveiihe-
less, bearing in mind the English disaster of three months
before, and also the &ct that the Dutch under all disad-
vantage made here again a good fight, the result must be
attributed mainly to the concentration of the English fleet.
Four or five Dutch ships of war were sunk, four captured,
and some thirty-five of the merchant vessels taken.
At this time General Monk, a soldier trained in the
Netherlands wars and in the recent Civil War, the same
who a few years later was the chief agent in the restoration
of Charles II., was transferred to service afloat. He com-
manded a division in the fight last mentioned, February 18,
1658. Under his influence no further division was al-
lowed of a force which, as it stood, was none too large for
the work before it. The position of Oreat Britain rela-
tively to the commercial approaches to Holland, whether
by the Channel or the North Sea, gave her a strategic
advantage over her enemy of that day precisely similar to
that which by position she now enjoys over Germany.
But, as has been said before, the advantage of position,
however real and however great, depends upon the use
made of it. The development of the German navy to-day
is to be attributed, at least in part, to the recognition of this
disadvantage of position, while the concentration of the
British battleship force in home waters is the reflection of
the German development. The measures of both countries
are logical and inevitable resultants of forces — strategic,
commercial, and economical — acting upon the interests of
people.
The concentration of the English navy, in and after
1658, combined with the superior military organization of
the fleet and the military sagacity of the government,
effectually decided this war. At the end of eighteen
74 NAVAL STRATEGY
months the control over the approaches to Holland had
put a stop to Dutch trade. Fifteen hundred Dutch ships
were captured. This number, we are told, was double that
of the English merchant shipping of that day — a contrast
which throws light upon the jealousies between the two
peoples and upon the motives of the English Navigation
Act The sources of Dutch revenue were dried up. Work-
shops were closed, work suspended. The Zuyder Zee be-
came a forest of masts, the country full of beggars. Orass
grew in the streets, and in Amsterdam fifteen hundred
houses were untenanted. This was the result, not so much
of fighting, as of strategic control of principal commercial
routes.
Cromwell in 1654 granted terms of peace far easier than
he might have exacted. It was not part of his policy to
ruin a Protestant state. The soldier. Monk, was wroth,
seeing only the immediate military end; the statesman
realized that the contemporary European situation was one
in which England needed a strong Holland, not an ex-
hausted. Peace and cooperation better suited his policy,
which was turning its eyes upon general external condi-
tions in Europe and in the other continents. In the four
years of life which remained to him he was to decide what
advantage England and the cause of Protestantism might
draw out of the then current war between France and
Spain. Between these two his policy halted for some
time, in a manner and to a degree which still constitutes a
perplexity to historians.
Before quitting this part of our subject it seems expedi-
ent to guard myself from the appearance of a mere dog-
matic insistence upon the close concentration of direct
contact Like every sound principle, concentration must
be held and applied in the spirit, not in the letter only ;
exercised with understanding, not merely literally. The
essential imderlying idea is that of mutual support; that
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 75
the entire force, however distributed at the moment, is
acting in such wise that each part is relieved by the others
of a part of its own burden ; that it also does the same for
them ; while the disposition in the dotted stations facili-
tates also timely concentration in mass. A very consider-
able separation in space may be consistent with such
mutual support. The Japanese admirals, Togo and Kami-
mura, before the fall of Port Arthur were separated, and
for necessary reasons; yet each supported the other by
positions which were between the two principal enemies'
divisions, — i. e., central. Consequently each supported
its colleague by the control each exercised over its im-
mediate opponent The central position, too, facilitated
junction or reinforcement, — transfer of force, — should
such become advisable ; as in the engagement of Aug^ust
10, 1904, when Kamimura moved across the mouth of
the Yellow Sea for a cooperation which in the result was
not needed, because of the return of the Russian fleet to
Port Arthur. Separations can be much wider than once
they were, because steam and electricity make movement
more certain and communication more quick than in old
times ; but such changes have in no sense affected the
fundamental necessity that the several divisions should be
BO disposed that they support one another, and can combine
by actual contact before the enemy by combination can
overwhelm any one of them. This consideration, in my
judgment, absolutely forbids the division of the present
fleet of the United States between the two principal coasts.
Such separation will be permissible only when each shall
be superior to any probable enemy, as Togo was superior
to the Port Arthur squadron, and Kamimura to that of
Vladivostok, or when, by secure tenure of a central posi-
tion, they can join in time to present a united mass.
CHAPTER V
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS
(Concluded)
BEFORE beginning to-day's lectnie, it will be con-
ducive to the teachings I hope from its subject
to say, now, that while it incidentally offers
further illustration of the strategic advantage
inherent in concentration, in central position, and in inte-
rior lines, its principal lesson, the one on which 1 wish to
lay the most stress, is the inevitableness with which the ap-
pearance of a navy on a scene of operations distant from
its home country leads to the acquirement of permanent
positions in such a region, and the necessity of such posi-
tions to the effectiveness of naval action.
I purpose first to pass in a rapid review, su£5cient only to
give you the continuous historical setting of our lessons,
the events intervening between the first war between the
Dutch and English, 1652-1654, and those general European
wars, beginning in 1689, in which the union of the two
peoples under one ruler accomplished for them the con-
centration of effort Cromwell had sought at first . In
this intervening period there had been between them two
other wars, upon which our present subject does not re-
quire us to touch. The union under a single sovereign was
realized for a short period, 1688-1702, during which the
Stadtholder of Holland, who also was commander-in-chief
of its sea and land forces, was at the same time King Wil-
liam HI. of Great Britain. This temporary union of the two
countries effected the concentration of the two navies under
a single command; a condition which the overwhelming
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 77
power of Louis XIV. rendered of vital importance through-
out, but which could not have been so perfectly attained had
it not been for this brief period under one sovereign. By it
was facilitated the close alliance which followed his death,
and which was demanded by imperious necessity. Crom-
well had sought the same, and failed. He, therefore, had been
forced to beat the Dutch in order to achieve his desired
teoncentration by paralyzing a rival whom he could not com-
mand for an aUy. We shall consider first the action and
effect of this concentrated naval power under Cromwell ;
and afterwards, the action and effect of the concentration
by union under one head, William III., as also, for a time,
by alliance in the days of his immediate successor, Queen
Anne.
Though the Dutch navy survived the war we have treated,
both it and the country had suffered so severely as to have
no stomach for immediate further fighting. This result,
by leaving the English navy supreme over any other in
Europe, was practically to concentrate naval power in
Cromwell's hands, not by the alliance of Holland, but by
her elimination ; especially so long as Spain and France, by
continuing at war, tended to a balance of sea power between
themselves. Mazarin's experience of the advantageous
effect of the French navy upon the communications between
Spain and Italy, after Richelieu's death in 1642, had led to
a development of his naval policy, such as commonly fol-
lows the entrance of a fleet upon a new scene of war. He
had sought for advanced bases in the Mediterranean, by
resting securely on which the scope and sweep of the
French fleet would be expanded, and so the political power
of France extended. First Elba and Piombino, a port in
Italy over against Elba, were secured in 1646 ; following
which Mazarin endeavored to establish in Naples a new
rule, necessarily friendly to France.^ This attempt at f ur-
1 See map facing page M.
78 NAVAL STRATEGY
ther advance had only momentaiy success. These events,
1646-1648, were antecedent to Cromwell's power.
It was precisely the want of such local bases that at the
first, after the conclusion of the Dutch war, made the ap-
pearances and the influence of the English fleet inside the
Straits of Gibraltar ephemeral and transient, even under
a ruler as capable and resolute as Cromwell. Great effects
were produced, but they were momentary; negative, so to
say, rather than positive ; and, notable though they were,
depended upon the simple existence of the fleet rather than
upon its action. The policies of France and Spain were
swayed less by what the English fleet did, than by the sense
of what it might do if thrown into either scale. This is an
illustration of the determining influence of armaments,
even when no blood is shed ; a beneficent effect, of which
recent and even present conditions still afford instances.
- It may very well be that the silence of such action pre-
vented Cromwell's recognizing clearly how much pressure
the mere presence of the fleet exercised when Admiral
Blake reached Gibraltar — then still a Spanish port — in
November, 1654, six months after the peace with Holland.
At that moment a French expedition had landed in Naples,
to renew the attempt at detaching it from Spain. Success
depended necessarily upon command of the sea, which was
now the more precarious, because the internal commotions
of France, known as the Fronde, had enabled Spain to
regain Elba and Piombino. Blake at Gibraltar interposed
between the French navy in the Mediterranean, then at
Naples, and a large reinforcement on the way from Brest.
Delays of the Brest division had enabled Bh^e to gain this
central position, Gibraltar, where he was hospitably received;
because at that time, although England was not formally at
war with either France or Spain, it was understood on all
hands that the state of reprisals which existed against
France, owing to seizures of English merchant vessels by
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 79
French cruisers, would be followed by direct attack on
French ships of war, if met. Already, two years before, in
1652, such an attack had been made by Blake in the Chan-
nel upon French reinforcements proceeding to Dunkirk,
with the immediate result that the port, then in French
possession, was taken by the Spaniards. Now it became
known at Naples that the same admiral was at Gibraltar ;
while the other French division was still in the Atlantic,
though just where, and what its condition, was not known.
Actually, it had stopped at Lisbon and made no effort to
proceed. While Blake, in accordance with his orders, waited
to hear about it, the fleet at Naples had time to escape to
Toulon, but at the cost of abandoning its undertaking.
If Blake had gone on at once he might have destroyed
it ; as it was, he forced it away by his mere position. There
was decisive effect, though no fighting.
Corbett justly points out that such a result, which I
have styled '^ negative,*' is apt to be overlooked, or at least
may not arrest attention so as to affect future action.
Thus, in the latest war. Port Arthur stands for a Japanese
victory ; few are impressed with the fact that, till it fell, it
detained from the main armies in Manchuria many more
Japanese than it did Russians, and obtained abundant time
for the Baltic fleet to arrive. That this did not arrive
within that time was not attributable to Port Arthur. In
the case before us Cromwell did not note the effect ex-
erted by Blake*s presence; or, if he did, was not influenced
sufficiently to turn his attention to the Mediterranean, and
away from the Atlantic and America, which the traditions
of Elizabeth, of Drake, and of Raleigh had constituted
hitherto the chief aim of English naval ambitions.
This trend of national thought was held with the tena-
cious conservatism characteristic of the English, and was
emphasized also by the other equally strong tradition of
Protestantism combining with the northern Powers of
80 NAVAL STRATEGY
Europe, including France, to resist Spain and Austria, the
representative political exponents of Roman Catholicism.
Cromwell embodied this tendency even to fanaticism.
The Mediterranean continued to him only an incident.
This is regretted by Corbett, whose theme is the Mediter-
ranean. I myself think Cromwell was right as a simple
matter of policy ^ though I do not excuse his conduct, even
allowing for the bad faith characteristic of much diplomacy
of that day.
What he did was this. While Blake at Gibraltar was
supporting Spain by embarrassing France, and while out-
wardly most friendly relations and correspondence char-
acterized English intercourse with Spain, an expedition
against the Spanish West Indies was quietly fitted out and
despatched. It sailed in December, 1654, the same year
that peace was concluded with Holland, at the very
moment when Blake, enjoying the hospitality of Spain in
Gibraltar, by his presence there compelled the French to
abandon their attempt upon Naples, a Spanish dominion.
In May, 1655, after failing at Santo Domingo, the West
Indian expedition seized Jamaica; the English tenure of
which dates from then.
Six months after this, in November, 1655, a formal peace
with France put an end to the state of reprisals previously
existing. Thereupon Spain declared war against England
in the following February, 1656. A year later, March, 1657,
came an offensive alliance between England and France
against Spain. The stipulations of this were that, in return
for aid by the English fleet and by six thousand Ekiglish
auxiliary troops, Dunkirk and Mardyke on the Straits of
Dover were to be taken by France from Spain and ceded
to England. The possession of these ports not only would
deprive privateering of a headquarters noxious to English
trade, but would give England a bridgehead for landing on
the Continent, in pursuance of Cromwell's inclination to
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 81
support the Protestant cause in north Europe. These
ports would take the place once filled by their neighbor,
Calais. This was doubtless not satisfactory to Mazarin;
but the alliance aided him in the Netherlands, where
chiefly he looked for gains from Spain, and also he hoped
to juggle Cromwell to the advantage of France. He met
his match, however, in the Protector, who insisted that the
two Flemish ports be taken; and they were placed in
English possession in July, 1658, three months before
Cromwell died. Spain, exhausted by this powerful com-
bination against her, and by internal decay, came to teims
with France a year later — 1659 — in a treaty known as
the Peace of the Pyrenees. France received the province
of Artois in the Netherlands, and RoussiUon, by the east-
em Pyrenees ; besides other extensions of her eastern
boundary, the main object of her ambition. This war of
Spain with combined England and France precipitated the
final decline of the Spanish monarchy, which had been pro-
gressing for some time. It marks the decisive turning
point when Spain was seen evidently to have descended
forever from her predominance in Europe.
The generation following Cromwell blamed hun for aiding
France to this immense accession of power, which helped
to make her imder Louis XIV. the dominant and threaten-
ing state in Europe. To treat this question fully is beyond
our scope, the more so that it is hopeless to expect such a
demonstration as by universal acceptance should put an
end to discussion. There are proB and c<m«, the decision
between which is a matter of temperament and preposses-
sion rather than of pure reason. From the military stand-
point it is sufficient to point out that Cromwell left
England with a position consolidated at home, with a su-
preme fleet, an adequate army, and, through the two ports
gained, with a favorable opening for intervention on the
Continent, if that should be desirable. This assured her
82 NAVAL STRATEGY
military position for such contingencies in Europe as
seemed then probable; while for the world abroad, in
America and the East, the future depended upon the bal-
ance of power in Europe, especially of the fleets. For
such possessions abroad European countries were the bases
of operations. Decision in Europe must precede acquisi-
tion beyond seas.
In the great struggle with Louis XIY., soon to come, the
English navy, no longer supreme, was reinforced by the
alliance with Holland; as was also the English army.
The Dutch ports also furnished then the bridgehead which
Charles II. had surrendered when he gave up Dunkirk
to France shortly after his restoration ; and alliance with
Holland was &cilitated by the strong national and relig-
ious prepossessions which had induced Cromwell to con-
centrate English action in northern Europe, instead of
in the Mediterranean, the day for action in which was
not yet quite come. Then appeared the justification
of his refusal to weaken Holland unduly. I think it
is not too much to say that the career of William HI.,
from the time he became king of England, justifies the
policy of Cromwell ; for although the immediate opponent
was no longer the same, the situation was not dissimilar
and the great outlines of action were closely parallel, —
an army operating in the north of Europe, a fleet in the
Channel or the Mediterranean, as occasion required.
Cromwell's policy was based on the bed-rock of the mili-
tary services as they stood when he died; not upon the
course of the future Stuart kings, which he could in no
wise foreknow. They, not he, fostered the power of
Louis XIV.
Do I need to suggest to you that to-day ag^ain a supreme
navy, an army adequate for external action, and a position
consolidated in northern Europe, are the precise formulated
requirements, to meet which Great Britain is striving?
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 83
and also that upon this consolidation^ in home waters,
depends the fortunes of her possessions abroad ? with the
possible exception of Canada. Interference with Canada
by a foreign state the United States could scarcely see and
not act. But at this moment France, Russia, and Great
Britain represent the England, Holland, and Germany of
William III.; and the concentration of the fleet in the
North Sea reproduces the conditions under the Dutch king.
To-day, however, Germany is the dreaded enemy, not
France.
From the death of Cromwell to the revolution which
expelled James II. from the English throne was just thirty
years, 1658-1688. I pass over them without notice. The
English policy of the period, international as well as mili-
tary, was vitiated and paralyzed by the resolve of the two
Stuart kings to maintain their personal power and to resist
concessions to their people. This object required inde-
pendence of Parliament^ which to some extent was obtained
by playing it off against Louis XIV. ; but military opera-
tions require money, which only Parliament could give.
Charles II. and James II. therefore maintained with the
French king pecuniary and personal relations which ended
in dependence upon him. Thus the aggressions of France
upon Europe went on with England quiescent ; though not,
as to her people, indifferent. Dunkirk and Mardyke on
the Channel surrendered to France, Tangier acquired in
the Mediterranean, indicate a feeble and tentative change
of external policy ; but an effective external policy cannot
exist where there is internal strife, whether between lo-
calized factions, such as the North and South of the
United States fifty years ago, or between people and
rulers, as in the case now before us, and, indeed, from
first to last of the Stuart dynasty.
A very recent French naval wiiter, Commander Daveluy,
says with equal truth and force :
84 NAVAL STRATEGY
'* So long as a nation has not consolidated its unity, all
its resources are not too much for employment upon its own
territoiT. This is why England comd not lay the founda-
tions of her colonial empire until after her union with Scot^
land. This is the reason that the French navy dates from
Louis XIV.^ This is why the navy of Germany dates from
the constitution of the Empire/'
It is worth your while to know, and to bear in mind as
a momentous political contemporary &ct» that the annual
expenditure upon the German navy has increased from less
than ten million dollars in 1875, after the war with France,
to over fifty millions in 1905 ; and tliat for the ten years suc-
ceeding the estimates are over one hundred millions yearly.
It may be added that the United States did not entertain
a strong navy, and reach out beyond seas, till after the
question of slavery had been settled, and the period of
exaggerated States Rights, as well as the postrbellum ad-
justment of the South, had been left behind. If the ques-
tion with Spain, which culminated in 1898, had arisen
before the War of Secession, the North as a community
would have seen in war onl^ an attempt at extending the
territory of slavery by taking Cuba, knowing that to be a
favorite project of Southern leaders.
This effect of internal consolidation upon external action
can be strikingly, yet briefly, illustrated from the periods
we have been considering. In 1622, after a feeble inter-
regnum of twelve years, following the death of Henry lY.
in 1610, Richelieu became the ruler of France. In 1624,
full of his project of separating Austria and Spain by
controlling north Italy and the Alpine passes, he seized
and occupied the Valtellines district^ east of Lake Como,
through which are three principal passes to the upper
Rhine and to the Inn. Upon this intervened a revolt of
the Huguenots, with civil war. He had then to abandon
1 It might be more correct to say from Richelieu, the coDtoQdAtor of that
nation.
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 86
the Valtellines in 1626, and to concentrate his forces
within the kingdom; the siege of La Rochelle, familiar
to us in Dumas' *' Three Musketeers," being the salient
and decisive incident, because there England threatened
intervention, and there Richelieu realized that France must
have a navy. In October, 1628, the fall of La Rochelle
signalized the final downfall of Protestantism as a danger-
ous political factor in France. Within six months, Riche-
lieu was back in Italy, and by seizing Casale, in March,
1629, controlled Piedmont against Spain* Two years
later, 1681, by subsidizing Sweden, he strengthened Gusta-
vus Adolphus against Austria. In 1638 he occupied
Lorraine, and from Lorraine Alsace, intercepting Austrian
and Spanish movement along the valley of the Rhine,
and facilitating French invasion of Germany. In 1684,
in consequence of the Swedish reverse at Nordlingen,
he entered into formal alliance with Sweden and Hol-
land, both Protestant countries, and in 1635 declared
open war against Spain. In 1636, to emphasize control
over the communications from Spain to north Italy,
the French navy concentrated in 'the Mediterranean,
and there continued paramount until 1655, when the
English fleet under Blake entered, and the scene changed.
The successive external measures indicated the progress of
internal unity, which was the basis upon which Richelieu
built up his great schemes of external policy.
With these actions of Richelieu began the steady
progress of France towards that preponderance over all
Europe which distinguished the first thirty years of the
personal rule of Loms XIV. The period from the fall of
Rochelle to the expulsion of James II. of England was just
sixty years, 1628-1688, marked by the continuous policy of
three great rulers, Richelieu, Mazarin, aad Louis XIV.
The only interruption was during the four years, 1649-1658,
under Mazarin, when the internal outbreak known as the
86 KAVAL STRATEGY
Fronde again crippled external action. The really colossal
growth of French power was due to several causes ; but
they can all be summed up under the two heads : national
imity consolidated in France and hopeless division in Eu-
rope. This division was owing mainly to England remain-
ing aloof from the interests of the Continent, through the
course taken by her kings. The King of England had
still power to frustrate national policy, though unable to
compel action contrary to the national will. The immi-
nent danger from the overgrown power of France was clear ;
but, by grace of the kings of England, adequate opposition
was impossible.
In treating the final wars of Louis XIY., 1688-1718, 1
enter on a period upon which I lectured here twenty years
ago, in the course since published under the title ^ Influ-
ence of Sea Power upon History.'* Corbett's " England in
the Mediterranean *' deals with the same, but his object is
different. My purpose was to indicate the bearing of the
navies upon the general issue of the contest ; his is to em-
phasize the specific importance of the Mediterranean, in a
conflict the chief scene of which, so far as fighting is con-
cerned, was the eastern and northeastern frontier of France.
Call the roll of battles and sieges, — Fleurus, Mons, Namur,
Steinkirk, Landen, Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde, Mal-
plaquet, — and the impression produced, of vivid action
chiefly in the Low Countries and on the Rhine, is true to
the general facts, despite the exploits of Eugene in north
Italy and of Peterborough in Spain. But, as in the wars
of Napoleon, it was not chiefly in the clash of arms, but in
the noiseless pressure by the navies, and largely in the
Mediterranean, that the issues were decided.
Let me repeat hei« that the specific consideration I have
in view in this lecture, and especially in what now follows,
is the bearing of permanent poeitione^ or, to use the tech-
nical word, bases, upon operations; and the inevitable
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 87
tendency, necessity, to proceed to the gradual acquisition
of such bases as soon as national policy impels a navy to a
new scene of activity. Such positions, in their permanency,
differ from those which an army or navy may from time to
time assume temporarily in a campaign, but resemble the
permanent fortresses established on a national frontier.
The considerations of central situation, of interior lines,
of effect upon communications, are common to both tempo-
rary and permanent positions, and a situation useful for a
permanent base may be equally so for the active operations
of the field, or campaign; but the element of lasting
tenure of new bases of operations introduces other consid-
erations, of which the historical instance now to be treated
furnishes illustration. The importance of the Danube,
owing to the position, general course, and natural features
of its bed, induced the establishment of fortified positions
upon critical points ; fortresses, which were local bases of
operations as well as serving to control passage of the
stream. So the importance of the Mediterranean, due to
its situation relatively to the countries surrounding it,
necessitated the acquisition of fortified ports, which were
bases for the fleet, as well as afforded control over the
communications of the sea. Naval base and naval station
are not synonymous.
Note, first, that the Mediterranean as a whole, and
specifically its western basin from the Italian peninsula to
the Spanish, has been in itself, and still remains, a military
po9ition of transcendent importance.^ This, in sum, is
Corbett^s thesis, which he expounds at large. Preponder-
ant naval power there has determined gigantic issues,
swaying the course of history ; but to exert its full effect
permanent bases at hand were necessary. Gibraltar, Malta,
Cyprus, Egypt, and incidentally Minorca, have been re-
sults ; as are the French Toulon, Algiers, Bizerta. Some
1 See map, facing page 94.
88 NAVAL STRATEGY
of you may live to see German ports on the same list, and
not improbably other Austrian ports besides Trieste and
Fiume. Our present theme traces this development after
the &11 of James 11. in 1688.
The crux of the political situation, and therefore of the
military, was that the power of France, consolidated by
Richelieu, Mazarin, and Louis XIV., had reached a degree
which, coupled with her central position and resources,
made her dominant over Europe. She, not England, was
the subsidizer of that time. This power she was using
unscrupulously for further aggression and aggrandizement.
The universal danger necessitated a general alliance in
mutual defense. Great Britain, Holland, Austria, Spain,
and northern Italy under the House of Savoy — the entire
continent west of Poland — all banded against the common
enemy.
Such numbers, pressing from eveiy quarter, were ade-
quate to prevail in the war which began in 1689 and lasted
till 1697 ; but coalitions are notoriously feeble, while France
was strong and central. Her territorial ambitions were
directed against the Spanish Netherlands and the Rhine ;
she wished by conquest to extend her dominions in both
directions. Therefore, to operate by her left flank and left
center against the allied right was her main purpose, while
she would refuse her own right in Spain and Italy. That
is, as I interpret her actions, her demonstrations in these
two quarters were rather threats, the effect of which would
be to prevent those members of the alliance against her
from assisting to embarrass her principal action in the east
and northeast, otherwise than by defending themselves.
But this was not all. Forces small relatively to her main
action would suffice for this end, as a general or admiral
uses smaller numbers on the flank he refuses ; but if the
demonstration, the threat, was sufficient to overawe the
country struck at, it might be detached from the alliance.
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 89
In such case, all the demonstrating force could be drawn
off to the main attack in the northeast and east, as the
besiegers of Port Arthur went to Manchuria after the
surrender of that fortress.
It may be urged that, just because France preferred to
act by her left, in the Netherlands and Germany, the allies
should endeavor to force her to action on her right ; and
accordingly it was just here that the Mediterranean entered
as a factor, as it has in later days, and as it had before.
**Now again,*' says Ranke, ^came up that condition of
international policy which during the two previous centu-
ries had especially ruled the course of politics, — the con-
nection between Spain and the Indies with south Italy and
Milan." That political connection depended on the tenure
of the Mediterranean. Relatively to Spain herself and her
dependencies, — Naples and Milan, — and to her present
aUy, Savoy, the Mediterranean was a great central position.
Because the countries immediately threatened by France,
Catalonia on the west and Piedmont (Savoy) on the east,
bordered or touched that sea, military operations for and
against were influenced decisively by control of the water.
If the coalition against Fiance could dominate the west-
em Mediterranean with a great fleet, its waters would be-
come a central position from which support could be thrown
to either side, to Spain or to Italy, as occasion demanded.
Frequent mentions of this &cility and of its bearings occur
in the letters of Marlborough and of Prince Eugene, the
commanders of the allied forces in the Netherlands and in
Italy respectively. The maintenance of naval control, which
under earlier international conditions had aided to deter-
mine the question of communications between Spain and
Germany, now afforded the advantage of central position
for action in two directions, — against the enemy operating
in two separate quarters, Catalonia and Piedmont, unable
to combine and with long and difficult communications.
90 NAVAL STRATEGY
Further, the Mediterranean, from its situation relatively
to the extended front of the French operations, from the
Netherlands to Catalonia, bore upon one flank of that line,
and this the flank opposite to that on which France wished
to throw the weight of her efforts. Therefore the situa-
tion, if duly utilized, facilitated pressure upon an extreme
flank, a flank attack, tending to enfeeble French action in
other quarters. It was this that more particularly charac-
terized the influence of the Mediterranean in the two suc-
cessive great wars, 1689-1697 and 1702-1714.
In ultimate naval strength the allied maritime states
England and Holland were superior to France ; but time
was needed for the development of their power, and at the
opening of the first war the exigencies of the situation in
England, Scotland, and Ireland, owing to intestine dissen-
sions consequent upon the expulsion of James II., necessa-
rily detained their fleets about the British Islands. At the
moment there were no English ships of war in the Mediter-
ranean, where France then had a decisive superiority. By
strong detachments from this force France for the first two
years continued to have larger numbers in the Channel
than the allies. At the Battle of Beachy Head, 1690, there
were seventy-eight French ships to sixty^enemies ; but the
result in the south was naval inactivity, so that the land
situation remained unsupported and unaffected by the com-
mand of the sea, which it was otherwise in the power of
France to utilize. Instead, further detachments passed
yearly to the Atlantic, till after the Battle of La Hougue ;
the loss of which was partly attributable to its being pre-
cipitated before the arrival of a Toulon division. This
victory, 1692, fixed the control of the Narrow Seas in the
hands of the allies, establishing the communications be-
tween England and the Continent. The French fleet, to
the number of seventy-one sail, returned to the Mediterra-
nean in 1698, ready for the operations of 1694, in which
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 91
year a further body of twenty-two joined it. Not all
of these, however, seem to have been available for
service.
The consequence of this delay by France to exert force
in the Mediterranean was that political conditions there
continued unsettled* This became a perpetual source of
diversion to French strength, after the aUies, by recovering
their communications with the Continent, were able to fix
their principal land operations in the Netherlands. During
the pi*eceding years their power had been engaged prin-
cipally in consolidating King William's authority in the
British Islands and in establishing naval predominance in
home waters. It became evident that Louis XIV. had
overestimated the endurance of France, and under the re-
sulting strain he determined now upon serious operations
upon the Mediterranean littoral, which might induce Spain
and Savoy to peace, releasing the French forces in those
quarters for use in the Netherlands or Grermany. Tliis
was the object of the sudden transfer of the fleet to Toulon,
under the command of Tourville, the greatest French ad-
miral of the day. It went to sea to support the army
which on the coast of Catalonia was threatening Barcelona.
At the same time, and continuously, efforts were made to
detach Savoy from the Alliance.
The counter move of the allies, or rather of William III.,
was as evident as it proved irresistible. The main fleet,
under the victor of La Hougue, followed its enemy ; and»
though reaching the scene late, it was not too late. To
apply the familiar proverb, the French fleet had arrived
first, but not with the most men ; a commentary on the rel-
ative values of speed and of fighting power in ships. Being
inferior, it had to retire precipitately, fortifying itself in
Toulon ; the operations of the French army ceased with the
withdrawal of the fleet ; and the appearance of the allied
navies, British and Dutch, encouraged Savoy stiU to stand
92 NAVAL STRATEGY
fast, seeing the chance of a better bargain with this weight
thrown into the scales.
Just here and at once arose the question of a base. At
that day, and for fifty years later, it was [deemed imprac-
ticable for a fleet of line-of-battle ships to dare the Bay of
Biscay after October. At the beginning of the next war,
in 1702, the then commander-in-chief wrote, *^ No service
rendered by our great ships can balance the hazard of
bringing them home in winter." To regain the home ports
in time, the Mediterranean must be left not later than Au-
gust This would permit the enemy, having Toulon at
hand, to resume operations on the coast with good pros-
pects that year, as well as to come out the next spring
before the English could arrive. Evidently the reason why
a fleet has to quit a scene of operations is immaterial. The
quitting, the displacement of the force, is the essential point.
It makes no difference whether a fleet is forced to remove
because of dangers of the sea or for want of coal. For each
case the remedy is a local base. In the instance before us,
if the British and Dutch fleet left the Mediterranean, Bar-
celona might fall, Spain be compelled to peace. Savoy de-
tached by mingled threats and promises, and the whole
French army in those quarters liberated to reinforce that
which to all parties was the chief field of war, — the Neth-
erlands and the Rhine.
At that time, 1694, Great Britain had no port of her own
in the Mediterranean. Tangier, the gift to her from Por-
tugal as part of a dowry at the marriage of Charles II.,
had been abandoned just before the death of that monarch,
in 1685. The want of a permanent port meant necessarily
the absence of all that a naval base involves, security and
resources; for these imply previous preparation, which
cannot be made .till the position has been acquired. Gibral-
tar, obtained ten years afterward, was latent in the reso-
lution now taken by William III., which Corbett justly
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 98
characterizes as one of the boldest, as well as of the most
momentous and decisive, in naval annals. Macaulay has
remarked, though not in this immediate connection, that
William was not in the first rank of generals in his
glance at a battle field, but that he had in the highest per-
fection the eye of a great statesman for all the turns of a
war. He had the instinct of the strategist, and he realized
that Savoy and Spain must be kept faithful, if France was
not to assemble overwhelming force in the Low Countries ;
that the only means to retain them was the sustained influ-
ence of the allied fleet in the Mediterranean. To effect
•
this, it must remain there, or thereabouts ; so, in the face of
all tradition and of the professional objections of the sea-
men, also without the support of the British ministry,
William, a distrusted foreigner, on his own personal re-
sponsibility gave the order that the fleet should winter
at Cadiz. Thus it could remain active to the last moment
of the autumn operations, be at hand during the winter,
and be ready to return with the first breath of spring.
It will be noted that to station thus the greater part of
the allied navies in the Mediterranean, reducing to com-
parative insignificance the force kept in the Channel, corre-
sponds precisely to the choice that the United States may
some day be compelled to make ; namely, to assemble the
full power of the fleet in the Atlantic or in the Pacific,
according to the nature of the danger, leaving the aban-
doned coast to a defensive attitude. In the contemporary
discussions preliminary to the decision of William III., it is
instructive to observe the appearance of those three factors,
into which, as heads of specification, the requirements of
a naval base will be formulated in the subsequent chap-
ters: (1) Position, or, better, situation; (2) Strength;
and (3) Resources. William's first demand was simply
that the fleet should remain out. The commander-in-chief
objected vigorously. There was no port; and, moreover,
94 NAVAL STRATEGY
if the fleet did not return, its absence kid Great Britain
open to invasion. This last, again, is the argument ad-
vanced for dividing the American fleet between the Atlan-
tic and Pacific. In this matter of a port, the English
government suggested to the admiral, Naples, Messina,
and Port Mahon. Naples, he replied, was undefended,
that is, it lacked strength ; Messina was too small ; Port
Mahon could not furnish provisions. In this it lacked
resources, as Messina did in anchorage room. The de-
termination upon Cadiz, while answering onlj partially
the demand for strength and resources, gave the needed
advantage of situation, and met the admiral's objection,
of the exposure of the British Islands. Almost equally
with Gibraltar it watched the Straits ; it was icentral as
to the detachment of the French navy at Toulon and
that which remained in the Atlantic; central also for
movement, either towards Toulon or the Channel At
Cadiz its communications were good; for supplies from
England could be sent, supplementing adequately the re-
sources of the port These in other respects were suf-
ficient ; for the anchorage was abundant and secure.
In the inferiority of the French navy at this time the posi-
tion at Cadiz imposed naval inaction upon Toulon ; and this
inaction paralyzed the French land operations in Catalonia,
as well as secured the adhesion of Savoy. The British fleet
remained in the Mediterranean during 1695 and again re-
turned to Cadiz to winter. Then the hopelessness of the
situation provoked Louis to a counter demonstration. He
assembled a force of troops at Calais, threatening an in-
vasion. The dread of this, renewed at later dates, 1779,
1781, 1799, 1801, and 1805, aroused a clamor which
induced the retention in England of the squadron destined
for Cadiz, there to replace the worn-out ships which were
to return. The home fleet thus constituted was stationed
in the Downs in 1696. The coincidence of the return
i;
^i
1
>
<
)
I CENTRAL
iSTERN^EUROPE
3
1
/
LLUSTRATING CAMPAIGNS
•
i
J'
1630-1713
Battles X
1
a
B
1 _ d
te
,
B.
<
i
ih
c-
m
le
d-
51-
,d,
he
m-
of
ria
diz
ms
uis
-ess
ons
fies
)ro-
for
am-
lith
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 96
of the disabled vessels with the detention of their reliefs
left the squadron at Cadiz inferior in numbers and the
Mediterranean open. The battle-ships of the Toulon
fleet escaped to Brest, and the concentration there in-
duced a similar local concentration of the British and
Dutch fleets. This was an error, because in the total
superiority of the allies it was possible for them to be in
effective force in both quarters. As it was, the vessels
remaining in Toulon now put out, Barcelona fell, and
Savoy made peace. Popular clamor exerts an immense
disturbing force upon rational military dispositions.
Panic has much in common with insanity.
However, ! the two years* delay obtained by the British
fleet remaining in position at Cadiz had completed the ex-
haustion of France. You may remember that the American
Squadron on Lake Champlain, in 1776, commanding the
water by its mere presence, so postponed the British ad-
vance that Ticonderoga remained American for that winter.
In the following spring the British had assembled an OTer-
powering naval force, the American squadron was destroyed,
and Ticonderoga fell ; but the delay obtained permitted the
consolidation of the American forces at Saratoga, causing
the failure of Burgoyne's campaign in 1777, and the con*
sequent surrender of his army. Delay is the great gain of
defense. In this way, as Mantua in 1796 defended Austria
against an advance by Bonaparte, the British fleet at Cadiz
defended Catalonia, Savoy, and Italy in general. It thus
obtained the delay which in the outcome exhausted Louis
XIV., and arrested finally the hitherto triumphal progress
of France. The three instances are excellent illustrations
of the strategic effect of a military position. Analogies
to this will be found in the delay obtained by the pro-
longed resistance of the French garrison in Genoa for
the full development of Bonaparte's plans in the cam-
paign of Marengo, in 1800; in the effect of Ladysmith
96 NAVAL STRATEGY
upon the Boer advance in 1899; and in the lesistance
of Port Arthur in 1904.
Peace between Fiance and the coalition against her was
made in 1697. It is not pertinent to my present object
to elaborate the occurrences of the next war, which opened
in 1702. The political combination was much the same
as before ; save that Spain and France had become allies
in the purpose of placing a Bourbon prince upon the
Spanish throne, left vacant by the death of the last of the
Austrian kings. This in itself made little difference, ex-
cept in the Peninsula; there national feeling, as in Napo-
leon^s day, stood by the sovereign whom the nation had
chosen. In Germany, Bavaria now sided with France.
Savoy at the first observed a neutrality which towards
France was more than benevolent, but which was soon
(October, 1708) converted into open hostility by imperious
French demands. The permanent interest of this war of
the Spanish Succession is that it settled the conditions in
Europe, upon which depended the issues of the great
colonial wars of the succeeding hundred years. The Peace
of Utrecht, which ended the war in 1718, established the
characteristic territorial arrangements of Europe for the
century, and with them the European bases upon which
rested the operations that in, the end ousted France from
America and the East Indies and established Great Britain
in her place. This international settlement therefore cor-
responds to that internal consolidation which precedes
national expansion.
Appreciation of the influence which pressure upon the
south of France had exerted over the operations on her
east and northeast frontier determined William III. to
begin the new war by seizing Cadiz, now no longer allied,
in order that it might serve as a base for the fleet acting in
the Mediterranean. This attempt, in 1702, failed ; but in
1704 the capture of Gibraltar served the same end, with
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 97
the further consequence of permanent retention by Great
Britain, which could scarcely have followed with Cadiz.
Meantime, William had died ; and his place, as supreme
director of the general war by land and sea, was filled by
Marlborough, who was in strict accord with William's
views as to the Mediterranean. Briefly, although the fu-
ture of the Spanish dominions was the main object of the
contest, in order to frustrate the French purpose of placing
a French prince upon the Spanish throne, and to support
an Austrian claimant to it, Marlborough planned that the
war in the Spanish Peninsula should remain a side issue, a
diversion ; while the allied navy, by pressure on the coast
from Barcelona to Genoa, should support Savoy in closing
the road by the valley of the Po to the French, to whom it
offered a route alternative to the Danube valley for advance
against Austria. Closing to France meant also keeping
open for an Austrian army to move against Toulon. The
reduction of this place was the real decisive object in the
Mediterranean. It would give the allies a formidable port,
a strategic position permanent for the existing war, imme-
diately on their scene of naval operations, at the same time
that the loss of it would paralyze the French navy locally ;
and it would remain a bridgehead for landings in southern
France, the dread of which could not but detain a dispro-
portionate number of French troops from reinforcing resist-
ance to the allied armies in the Netherlands, or on the
German frontier. .
This was the broad underlying purpose of the naval
campaign in 1704, in which Gibraltar fell. It failed, for
reasons too complicated to detail here ; but the influence
of the fleet's presence upon Savoy, the pressure upon this
flank of the French, contributed to favorable changes in
the main theater of the war in Germany and on the upper
Rhine. The maintenance of Savoy in her opposition to
France depended upon support by the allied fleet, aided by
98 II AVAL STRATEGY
troopi of tha coalition. This permitted Prince Eugene,
who bad commanded in Italy, to make in 1704, the year
after Savoy^a defection from France, the jonction in the
valley of the Danube with Marlborough, who had marched
his army from the Netherlands south for this concentra-
tion ; the result being the celebrated Battle of Blenheim,
which inflicted upon the French a tremendous overthrow.
This victory in turn relieved for the time the pressure
upon Savoy, to accomplish which was one of Marlborough's
objects in undertaking his great flank maroh ; an interest-
ing instance of the interaction of events in war.
Marlborough and Eugene persisted in their purpose
against Toulon, which culminated in a direct attempt in
1707. This again failed ; but the effect of this conjoint
movement of the fleets and armies of the coalition, this
flank attack, had been to cause so large a concentration of
Frenoh troops in that quarter as to reduce France to in-
action elsewhere. After this year the French abandoned
Italy. Marlborougb in 1708, after the mishap of Toulon,
expressed his regret that the British ministry found it
difficult to keep the fleet in the Mediterranean during
winter. ^^ Until it does so stay I am much pereuaded you
will not succeed in Spain.'' The want of a base other
than Qibraltar was met by the capture of Minorca in the
same year. . It, with Gibraltar, was ceded to England at
the peace. Minorca thus was a more useful conquest than
Toulon, as Gilndtar was more than worth Cadiz ; just be-
cause it was possible to obtain a cession, a permanent
acquisition, which could scarcely have been done with
either of the continental ports.
Thus> by obtaining for En^and fixed nayal bases, the
X^eace of Utrecht made the strategic position of the
Mediterranean permanently tenaUe by the British nary,
eottferring the power of acting upon the coast line every-
where, with the unforeseen and unforeeeeable promptness
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND COMMENTS 99
which the mobility of naval force gives. From the particu-
lar territorial distribution of France and Spain, which en-
tails on them commercial and military necessities on both
the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, a superior navy, like
that of England, by operating in the Mediterranean and
towards its entrance, acts as did the Archduke on the
Danube. The sea itself becomes a link, a bridge, a highway,
a central position, to the navy able to occupy it in ade-
quate force. It confers interior lines, central position, and
communications militarily assured ; but to hold it requires
the possession of established bases, fortresses, such as those
of which we have been speaking. Similarly, all these ad-
vantages followed the command of the American lakes,
themselves Mediterraneans, in 1812-1814. ^Without
naval control of those lakes,*' wrote the Duke of Well-
ington, *^ successful land operations are impossible on
that frontier.^
CHAPTER VI
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES
IN their first conception, these lectures were intended
to comprise some outline treatment of the elements of
Naval Strategy, pre&toiy and leading up to a dis-
cussion of the strategic features of the Caribbean
Sea and Gulf of Mexico. Of this prefatory matter, the
remarks on the strategic significance of the Danube, drawn
from the works of the Archduke Charles, were a part ; to
which, for additional illustration, has been added now an
exposition of the similar effect exercised upon the wars of
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by the line of
positions extending from Genoa, through Milan, to the
Rhine valley, and by the Mediterranean, regarded as a
military position. These illustrate, in more ways than one,
the value of central position and interior lines ; while the
naval wars of Cromwell, also discussed, give valuable in-
struction on the same strategic subjects, and upon the
necessity of concentration, the great factor in strategy.
When these lectures were begun, in 1887, the interest of
the United States in the Caribbean and Oulf was what it
had been from the days of Jefferson ; that is to say, in the
opening years of the nineteenth century. As the years
passed, as the United States acquired Louisiana and the
Floridas, as the Spanish colonial empire in America was
overthrown and replaced by independent communities,
with the consequent pronouncement of the Monroe Doc-
trine, interest increased in degree, but varied little in aim.
To avert further European colonization or control entirely,
and European intermeddling as far as possible, summed up
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 101
American policy. Extension of national control had for its
chief motive the exclusion of European influences, by pre-
occupying the ground ; of which preoccupation Louisiana
and the Floridas afford successive instances. This tradition
passed on to Cuba ; it would have been impossible for the
United States to acquiesce in the transfer of the island to
a strong naval state. Even Jefferson regarded as desirable
to include it within our schemes of national extension,
averse though he was to any acquisition that might induce
a naval establishment. Beyond Cuba, he said definitely,
we should contemplate no advance.
The force of circumstances, however, pushed the active
interests of the United States beyond Cuba to the Isthmus.
This was immediately consequent upon the development of
the Pacific coast, accelerated by the conquest of California
from Mexico, and by the discovery there of gold. The im-
portance of the Isthmus to a nation having possessions on
both oceans was of course evident from the beginning. It
had been evident to Spain, when her colonial empire was
thus distributed, affecting her policy and that of her ene-
mies ; while to the United States it became clear when she
too had political and commercial interests on the two
coasts, and recognition of this increased in proportion as
those interests developed. From that time American di-
plomacy, of which the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, executed
in 1851, continued in 1887 to be the most conspicuous
landmark, was increasingly concerned, not only with the
question of transit, but with that of positions which might
affect that transit because of their influence upon the lines
of communication, and especially upon that particular vital
link in those communications, the Isthmus.
It will be observed that the Isthmus reproduces, in its
own special way, the general condition seen in the relation
of the stream of the Danube to the control of its valley ;
and also that of the Yaltelline Passes to the Spanish com-
102 NAVAL STRATEGY
municationB through Italy and (Germany to the Nether-
lands, which formed the subject of the opening lectures.
The Caribbean Sea reproduces the central position of the
Mediterranean. This is true, even if the question be one of
land transit only, as was the case in 1887, when there was
no immediate prospect of a canal; and as it is at present,
though the completion of the canal is now probably near.
When the canal shall be finished, water communication
will be consecutive, and the parallel with the other instances
will be exact ; control will be imperative to facility of naval
action on both the national coasts. The Isthmus then will
interpose as the Danube barrier did between the countries
on either side ; the canal will be the bridge, the tenure of
which assures passage. To lose control would be to forfeit
the facility for concentration in either direction, which the
Danube gave to a general in Germany, and the Valtelline
territory to the Spaniards of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries. Such conditions make the Isthmus important
internationally, as well as nationally important to the
United States; but the interest of the United States is
particular and supreme to a degree which may reasonably
expect recognition from other countries.
Since these lectures were written, twenty-odd years ago,
and even since their partial revision in 1897, ten years
afterwards, a notable change has come over the whole pros-
pect of American foreign relations. Up to the war with
Spain, in 1898, the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty was still in
force; it was not superseded until the Hay-Pauncefote
Treaty of 1901. The result of the latter has been to give
the United States a free hand at the Isthmus, so far as
Europe was concerned ; there having been in this matter no
diplomatic obligations to nations other than Great Britain.
The conclusion of this treaty, however, is above all notable
because it was the consummation of a process that had been
going on for over a half-century ; marked towards its end
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 108
by considerable acrimony, owing to the strong feeling which
had developed in the United States concerning its para-
mount interest in the Isthmus.
By a curious irony the Spanish War, which led to the
triumph of the Monroe Doctrine, by the same stroke
brought the United States into the concerns of the Euro-
pean family of nations to a degree never anticipated by our
ancestors. I do not mean by this that we as yet feel our-
selves affected by purely European quarrels ; but I do mean
that, in consequence of the Spanish War, our external rela-
tions have been so modified and extended that the relative
strength of European states, what is there called the Bal-
ance of Power, may at any time, and unexpectedly, touch
us closely. Therefore we are under the necessity of care-
fully watching the swaying of that balance, the oscillations
of which are as continuous as those of a pendulum, though
not as regular.
I am disposed therefore emphatically to revise, as tenable
no longer, if ever, the opinion expressed in 1897, that Euro-
pean politics are scarcely to be considered as a part of the
War College course. It is true that at the earlier date this
statement was carefully qualified by the comment that the
nations of Europe then were, and for some time had been,
engaged in a course of colonial aggrandizement, indicative
of a spirit which might bring them into collision with the
American pronouncement in the Monroe Doctrine; and
that therefore, as all such activities depend upon sea
power, it was necessary for students of naval strategy to
take note of them. But the condition now is much more
acute ; partly because the United States has extended so far
its external activities, chiefly because the internal relations
of Europe itself, and its relations to Asia, have been under-
going such a revolution as materially affects the power, and
especially the relative sea power, of the several European
states to intervene, should they so wish, either in opposi-
104 NAVAL STRATEGY
tion or in support of any particular line of policy in Amer-
ica or in Asia.
The external activities of Europe, noted a dozen years
ago and before, have now to a certain extent been again
superseded by rivalries within Europe itself. Those rival*
ries, however, are the result of their previous external activ-
ities, and in the last analysis they depend upon German
commercial development. This has stimulated the Grer-
man Empire to a prodigious naval programme, which affects
the whole of Europe and may affect the United States.
In 1897 I summed up two conspicuous European condi-
tions as being the equilibrium then existing between
France and Germany, with their respective allies, and the
withdrawal of Great Britain from active association with
the affairs of the Continent. At that date the Triple Alli-
ance, Austria, Germany, Italy, stood against the Dual
Alliance, France and Russia; Great Britain apart from
both, but with elements of antagonism against Russia and
France, and not against the German monarchies or Italy.
These antagonisms arose wholly from conditions external
to Europe, — in India against Russia, and in Africa against
France. Later, the paralysis of Russia, through her
defeat by Japan, and through her internal troubles, left
France alone for a time ; during which Germany, thus as-
sured against land attack, was better able to devote much
money to the fleet, as the protector of her growing com-
merce. The results have been a projected huge German
navy, and a German altercation with France relative to
Moroccan affairs; incidents which have aroused Great
Britain to a sense of naval danger, and have propelled
her to the understandings — whatever they amount to —
with France and Russia, which we now know as the Triple
Entente. In short, Great Britain has abandoned the iso-
lation of twenty years ago, stands joined to the Dual
Alliance, and it becomes a Triple Entente.
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 106
To the United States this means that Great Britain, once
our chief opponent in matters covered by the Monroe
Doctrine, but later by the logic of events drawn to recede
from that opposition, so that she practically backed us
against Europe in 1898, and subsequently conceded the
Panama arrangement known as the Hay-Paunoef ote Treaty,
cannot at present count for as much as she did in naval
questions throughout the world. It means to the United
States and to Japan that Great Britain has too much at
stake at home to side with the one or the other, grant-
ing she so wished, except as bound by treaty, which im-
plies reciprocal obligations. Between her and Japan such
specific obligations exist. They do not in the case of
the United States ; and the question whether the two coun-
tries are disposed to support one another, and, if so, to what
extent, or what the attitude of Great Britain would be in
case of difficulty between Japan and the United States,
are questions directly affecting naval strategy.^
Great Britain does indeed for the moment hold Germany
80 far in check that the German Empire also can do no
more than look after its European interests ; but should a
naval disaster befall Great Britain, leaving Germany mas-
ter of the naval situation, the world would see again a pre-
dominant fleet backed by a predominant army, and that in
the hands, not of a state satiated with colonial possessions,
as Great Britain is, but of one whose late entry into world
conditions leaves her without any such possessions at all
of any great value. The habit of mind is narrow which
fails to see that a navy such as Germany is now building
will be efficacious for other ends than those immediately
proposed. The existence of such a fleet is a constant fac-
1 Since this wai written, a new TVeatj of Alliance between Great Britain
and Japan, operatire for ten jears, hai been signed — Jalj 18, 1911. By
itt terms either Power will be released from its militarj obligation to the
other, as against a third with which it maj hare a treaty of general arbitra-
tion, such as that framed between Great Britain and the United States.
106 NAVAL STRATEGY
tor in contemporary politics ; the part which it shall play
depending upon circumstances not always to be fore-
seen. Although the colonial ambitions of Grermany are
held in abeyance for the moment, the wish cannot but
exist to expand her territory by foreign acquisitions, to
establish external bases for the support of commercial or
political interests, to build up such kindred communities
as now help to constitute the British Empire, homes for
emigrants, markets for industries, sources of supplies of
raw materials, needed by those industries.
All such conditions and ambitions are incidents with
which Strategy, comprehensively considered, has to deaL
By the successive enunciations of the Monroe Doctrine
the United States stands committed to the position that
no particle of American soil shall pass into the hands
of a non-American State other than the present pos-
sessor. No successful war between foreign states, no
purchase, no exchange, no merger, such as the not impos-
sible one of Holland with Grermany, is allowed as valid
cause for such transfer. This is a very large contract;
the only guarantee of which is an adequate navy, how-
ever the term *^ adequate'' be defined. Adequacy often
depends not only upon existing balances of power, such,
for instance, as that by which the British and German
navies now affect one another, which for the moment
secures the observance of the Doctrine. Account must
be taken also of evident policies which threaten to dis-
turb such balances, such as the official announcement by
Germany of her purpose to create a **' fleet of such strength
that, even for the mightiest naval power, a war with
Germany would involve such risks as to jeopardize its
own supremacy." This means, at least, that Great Brit-
ain hereafter shall not venture, as in 1898, to back the
United States against European interference ; nor to sup-
port France in Morocco ; nor to carry out as against Ger-
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 107
many her alliance with Japan. It iB a matter of very
distinct consequence in naval strategy that Great Britain,
after years of contention with the United States, es«
sentially opposed to the claims of the Monroe Doctrine,
should at last have come to substantial coincidence with
the American point of view, even though she is not com-
mitted to a formal announcement to that effect.^ Such
relations between states are primarily the concern of the
statesman, a matter of international policies ; but they are
also among the data which the strategist, naval as well as
land, has to consider, because they are among the elements
which determine the constitution and size of the national
fleet.
I here quote with approval a statement of the French
Captain Darrieus:
^ Among the complex problems to which the idea of
strategy g^ves rise there is none more important than that
of the constitution of the fleet ; and every project which
takes no account of the foreign relations of a great nation,
nor of the material limit fixed by its resources, rests upon
a weak and unstable base."
I repeat also the quotation from Von der Groltz : *^ We
must have a natumal strategy, a national tactics.'' I can-
not too entirely repudiate any casual word of mine, reflect-
ing the tone which once was so traditional in the navy
that it might be called professional, — that ^* political ques-
tions belong rather to the statesman than to the military
man.'' I find these words in my old lectures, but I very
soon learned better, from my best military friend, Jomini;
and I believe that no printed book of mine endorses the
opinion that external politics are of no professional concern
to military men.
1 Since theie words were written inch formal announcement hat been
made by a member of the Britiih Cabinet, Sir Edward Grej, the Secretary
for Foreign Affairs, on May 28» 1911. The Mail, Maj 24» 1911.
108 NAVAL STRATEGY
It was in accordance with this changed opinion that in
1895, and again in 1897, I summed up European condi-
tions as I conceived them to be; pointing out that the
distinguishing feature at that time was substantial equi-
librium on the Continent, constituting what is called the
Balance of Power ; and, in connection with the calm thus
resulting, an immense colonizing movement, in which
substantiallj all the great Powers were concerned. This
I indicated as worthy of the notice of naval strategists,
because there were parts of the American continents which
for various reasons might attract upon themselves this
movement, in disregard of the Monroe Doctrine.
Since then the scene has shifted greatly, the distinctive
feature of the change being the growth of (Germany in
industrial, commercial, and naval power, — all three ; while
at the same time maintaining her militaiy pre-eminence,
although that has been somewhat qualified by the improve-
ment of the French army, just as the growth of the Grerman
navy has qualified British superiority at sea. Coincident
with this German development has been the decline of
Russia, owing to causes generally understood ; the station-
ariness of France in population, while Germany has in-
creased fifty per cent; and the very close drawing together
of Germany and Austria, for reasons of much more con-
trolling power than the mere treaty which binds them.
The result is that to-day central Europe, that is, Austria
and Germany, form a substantially united body, extending
from water to water, from the North Sea to the Adriatic,
wielding a military power against which, on the land, no
combination in Europe can stand. The Balance of Power
no longer exists ; that is, if my estimate is correct of the
conditions and dispersion which characterize the other
nations relatively to this central mass.
This situation, coinciding with British trade jealousies
of the new German industries, and with the (German naval
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 109
programme, have forced Great Britain out of the isolation
which the Balance of Power permitted her. Her ententes
are an attempt to correct the disturbance of the balance ;
but, while they tend in that direction, they are not ade-
quate to the full result desired. The balance remains
uneven ; and consequently European attention is concen-
trated upon European conditions, instead of upon the
colonizing movements of twenty years ago. Germany
even has formally disavowed such colonizing ambitions, by
the mouth of her ambassador to the United States, con-
firmed by her minister of foreign affairs, although a
dozen years ago they were conspicuous. Concerning these
colonizing movements, indeed, it might be said that they
have reached a moment of quiet, of equilibrium, while
internally Europe is essentially disquieted, as various in-
cidents have shown.
The important point to us here is the growing power of
the German Empire, in which the efficiency of the State as
an organic body is so greatly superior to that of Great
Britain, and may prove to be to that of the United States.
The two Englishnspeaking countries have wealth vastly
superior, each separately, to that of Germany ; much more
if acting together. But in neither is the efficiency of the
Government for handling the resources comparable to that
of Germany ; and there is no apparent chance or recognized
inducement for them to work together, as Germany and
Austria now work in Europe. The consequence is that
Germany may deal with each in succession much more
effectively than either is now willing to consider; Europe
being powerless to affect the issue so long as Austria
stands by (Germany, as she thoroughly understands that
she has every motive to do.
It is this line of reasoning which shows the power of the
German navy to be a matter of prime importance to the
United States. The power to control Germany does not
no HI AVAL STRATEGY
exist in Europe, except in the British navy ; and if social
and political conditions in Great Britain develop as they
now promise, the British navy will probably decline in
relative strength, so that it will not venture to withstand
the German on any broad lines of policy, but only in the
narrowest sense of immediate British interests. Even this
condition may disappear, for it seems as if the national life
of Great Britain were waning at the same time that that of
Germany is waxing. The truth is, Germany, by traditions
of two centuries, inherits now a system of state control,
not only highly developed but with a people accustomed to
it, — a great dement of force ; and this at the time when
control of the individual by the community — that is, by
the state — is increasingly the note of the times. Germany
has in this matter a laige start. Japan has much the
same.
When it is remembered that the United States, like
Great Britain and like Japan, can be approached only by
sea, we can scarcely fail to see that upon the sea primarily
must be found our power to secure our own borders and to
sustain our external policy, of which at the present moment
there are two principal elements ; namely, the Monroe
Doctrine and the Open Door. Of the Monroe Doctrine
President Taft, in his first message to Congress, has said
that it has advanced sensibly towai'ds general acceptance ;
and that maintenance of its positions in the future need
cause less anxiety than it has in the past. Admitting this,
and disregarding the fact that the respect conceded to it by
Europe depends in part at least upon European rivalries
modifying European ability to intervene, — a condition
which may change as suddenly as has the power of Russia
within the decade, — it remains obvious that the policy of
the Open Door requires naval power quite as really and
little less directly than the Monroe Doctrine. For the
scene of the Open Door contention is the Pacific ; the gate-
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES HI
»
way to the Pacific for the United States is the Isthmtis ;
the communications to the Isthmus are by way of the Gulf
of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. The interest of that
maritime region therefore is even greater now than it was
when I first undertook the strategic study of it, over twenty
years ago. Its importance to the Monroe Doctrine and to
general commercial interests remains, even if modified.
At the date of my first attempt to make this study of the
Caribbean, and to formulate certain principles relative to
Naval Strategy, there scarcely could be said to exist any
defined public consciousness of European and American in-
terest in sea power, and in the methods of its application
which form the study of Strategy. The most striking illus-
tration of this insensibility to the sea was to be found in
Bismarck, who in a constructive sense was the greatest
European statesman of that day. After the war with
Fiance and the acquisition of Alsace and Lorraine, he
spoke of Germany as a state satiated with territorial ex-
pansion. In the matter of external policy she had reached
the limits of his ambitions for her; and his mind thence-
forth was set on internal development, which should har-
monize the body politic and insure Germany the unity and
power which he had won for her. His scheme of external
relations did not stretch beyond Europe. He was then too
old to change to different conceptions, although he did not
n^lect to follow the demand of the people as their industry
and commerce developed.
The contrast between the condition of indifference to the
sea which he illustrated and that which now exists is
striking; and the German Empire, which owes to him
above all men its modem greatness, offers the most con-
spicuous illustration of the change. The new great navies
of the world since 1887 are the German, the Japanese, and
the American. Every state in Europe is now awake to the
fact that the immediate coming interests of the world.
112 NAVAL STRATEGY
which are therefore its own national interest, must be in
the other continents. Europe in its relatively settled
conditions offers really the base of operations for enter-
prises and decisive events, the scene of which will be in
countries where political or economical backwardness must
give place to advances which will be almost revolution-
ary in kind. This can scarcely be accomplished with-
out unsettlements, the composing of which will depend
upon force. Such force by a European state — with the
single exception of Russia, and possibly, in a less degree^
of Austria — can be exerted only through a navy.
Coincident with this growing sense of world conditions,
and of the dependence of the future upon sea power, there
has naturally gone on the development of a literature hav-
ing these relations for its subject. This has been a new
feature in naval affairs. By this is not meant that much,
if not all, of the data with which the new literature deals
had not been known and appreciated formerly. What is
meant is that the attempt at systematizing is new; the
effort to co-ordinate the data, to point out their significance,
to elicit their teaching, and to formulate it into principles
or definitions, the use of which facilitates understanding of
strategic questions. The common sense of all men has
early indicated some of the recognized principles of war,
while the insight of superior genius has given these fur-
ther developments and detected others; but, for all that,
it is only of comparatively late years that these principles
have been so digested and systematized, so demonstrated
and established, as to form a code recognized by all in
theory, however badly applied in practice. In the corre-
spondence of naval men of our day and of the past, in the
actions and bargains of statesmen, in naval history in gen-
eral, there will be found plentiful instances of under-
standing the value of particular factors in themselves,
and in their bearing upon interests near and remote.
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 118
Naval campaigns also, to some extent, illustrate the
principles of war, though it is significant that those most
interesting and most clearly stamped with military insight
have been directed in their main features by men not so
much seamen as soldiers. The dependence of Cromwell's
navy upon the army in this respect is well known. The
reorganization, even, of the fleet was intrusted to three
colonels who became and were called Generals at Sea*
These may be said to have recast the navy and the strategy
of Drake, Hawkins, and Raleigh. The deliberate purpose
was to re-model the fleet on the lines of the Common-
wealth's army, then the best in Europe ; and all the mili-
tary movements were controlled by soldiers, of whom
Robert Blake is the most eminent figure. After his death
the tradition was embodied in Monk, a capable soldier
and strategist.
These conditions lasted, though with modifications, to
the time of William III. Under him the navy became
thoroughly differentiated as a profession distinct from the
army. Nevertheless, not only William, the king, but his
military successor as commander-in-chief of the land forces,
Marlborough, the general, formulated the strategic move-
ments of the fleet ; army and fleet together being by them
recognized as integral factors, co-operating in the great
combinations of the wars which were directed succes-
sively by these two eminent soldiers. The Trafalgar cam-
paign, on the French side, was governed throughout by
Napoleon ; and Corbett has told us that its main lines had
been evolved forty years before by a French statesman.
Under the first Pitt such combinations were determined by
himself ; however he may have used professional advisers,
the ultimate strategic decision rested with him. But in the
War of American Independence, and in the Napoleonic
wars, men like Rodney, St. Vincent, and Nelson had be-
come strategists in the best sense. The management of
114 NAVAL STRATEGY
the British campaign before Trafalgar was eminently stra-
tegic and sound.
In the records of the wars above cited, in the correspond-
ence connected with them, in naval history and biography,
even of an early date, are to be found abundant material
from which to deduce an Art of Naval War; but it is
raw material, undigested, and requires working up. This
abundance does not of itself give that Art, any more than
any number of bricks gives us a house. It is probable
that the uncertainty of the motor in the sailing-vessel
largely contributed to the backwardness of the art of war
as applied to the navy. It was not possible for the admiral
to convert his distances into days, as the general did into so
many marches. Nelson, in pursuit, beat furiously against a
west wind, while two hundred miles away the fleeing Ville-
neuve sped by Gibraltar before an easterly gale. Land
warfare knew vicissitudes enough, but there was no such
perpetual disconcerting uncertainty as this. With dis-
tances thus dependent on wind and currents, strategic
and even tactical combinations became uncertain to dis-
couragement. At Trafalgar the wind made it impossible
for Nelson to carry out his plan on the lines laid down,
although he succeeded in preserving the essential features.
The consequent indisposition to systematic study was in-
creased by the indifference of the first navy of Europe to
the military side of its profession, as compared to good
seamanship.
It is to be recalled in this connection that at the time
these lectures were first written there had been no naval
campaign by steam fleets. The War of Secession in the
United States saw no opposition of fleets ; was in this one-
sided, though not without fruitful instruction as to the
influence of sea power. The same was true of the war
between France and Germany in 1870,. and that between
Russia and Turkey in 1877. Since the lectures were
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 116
written there have been the conflict between China and
Japan in 1894, between the United States and Spain in
1898, and that between Japan and Russia in 1904-1905.
The last of these will be discussed hereafter by itself ; but
even with the illustration derivable from it the great pre-
ponderance of historical experience continues to rest upon
sailing fleets.
Steam has introduced a relative certainty and precision
into the movements of fleets. Head winds and adverse
currents now answer only to the miry and mountainous
road, for which allowance can be made. The turns of the
screw can be counted upon better even than the legs of the
soldier. An Art of Naval War becomes possible ; and it
becomes imperative from the very fact that the rapid, many-
sided activity in the development of weapons produces a
confusion in the mind which must by all means be ended, if
possible. Moreover, if we clear our own heads and settle
our convictions, we may produce some effect on popular
understanding, which sorely needs it ; as was shown by the
tmintelligent clamor of sensible men during the Spanish
War, and the demands then made as to the distribution of
the fleet. If possible, we must get hold of the principles
which, throughout all changes, underlie naval war; of the
strongly marked outlines around which lesser details can
be filled in and to which they can be referred ; by which
this or that specious proposition can be judg^ed and found
to be sound or rotten, according as it fundamentally con-
forms to or conflicts with settled trudi.
Thus when urged, as it has been and assuredly again
will be, very strongly, to divide our battle-fleet fairly be-
tween our two coasts, we can point with equal assurance
to the successive experiences of the Dutch and British in
1652-1654, when they so divided between the North Sea and
the Mediterranean, or to that of Russia two centuries and
a half later, when she divided hers between the Baltic and
116 NAVAL STRATEGY
Port Arthur. Or we may cite the opinion of Napoleon
in the historic incident preceding Trafalgar, when Com-
wallis, haying, an interior position and thirty-four ships,
divided them impartially, as we are asked to do to-day, into
two nearly equal bodies, sixteen and eighteen respectively ;
thus making as sure as any human foresight could, that if
the enemy found either he would be in largely superior
force.
[Corbett, in his ** Campaign of Trafalgar,'* very recently
published, distinctly contravenes this criticism of Napoleon,
and justifies the division by which Comwallis, having
twenty-nine allied ships to deal with at Ferrol, besides
twenty-one in Brest, divided his thirty-four into two
bodies, eighteen before Ferrol and sixteen before Brest.
He justifies, as I understand, on the ground that the Ferrol
ships might go into the Mediterranean, and there control a
situation which the British Government was endeavoring
to mould in accordance with a coalition which was being
framed with Austria and Russia.
Any difficult military situation will give rise to differ-
ence of opinion, and it wiU be sufficient to point out, with-
out dogmatizing, reasons for considering that Napoleon
was probably right in his judgment, and Corbett probably
wrong. The allied divisions then in Ferrol had deliber-
ately abandoned the Mediterranean three or four months
before, and had gone to the West Indies. Returning, in-
stead of seeking the Mediterranean, their easier course,
they had with difficulty gone into Ferrol, where rein-
forcement met them. Coincidently, the French at Brest
moved into the outer roadstead, under heavy batteries, to
be as ready as possible to co-operate upon an approach of
the Ferrol ships. Nelson, then commander-in-chief in the
Mediterranean, had followed to the West Indies the Tou-
lon and Cadiz ships now assembled in Ferrol. Not finding
them in the West Indies^ he returned with his fleet to the
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 117
Mediterranean ; for, that being his special charge, he was
obliged to provide for it, until reasonable ground was af-
forded for assuming its security and the necessity of taking
his division elsewhere. This ground he found in the in-
telligence, received at Gibraltar, that the late Toulon di-
vision had certainly gone north* He consequently took
his ships north and joined the fleet already before Brest.
All this may be taken as showing Nelson's opinion that
the danger was in the north, and that the Mediterranean
for the time was safe. This general conclusion had the
concurrence of CoUingwood, who with a very few ships
remained before Cadiz, and continued in charge of the
small force of cruisers left by Nelson in the Mediterranean.
The result was that by the time Comwallis divided his
fleet into two bodies, of eighteen and sixteen, over three
hundred miles apart, the twenty-nine Ferrol ships had
gone to sea and had reached as far as two hundred and
fifty miles west-northwest of Ferrol, where they were in a
position as favorable for action in any direction as was the
so-called Invisible Squadron of Rochef ort, which during this
critical period had been roaming the adjacent seas undiscov-
ered. The situation, constituted by Comwallis' division
of his command, was therefore such as to make very pos-
sible that the eighteen or the sixteen might meet, unsup-
ported, the allied twenty-nine; and, if off Brest, the
possibility of co-operation by the French ships there.
The result undoubtedly would have been a creditable
display of British skill and valor ; possibly a brilliant vic-
tory over superior numbers. But, as Nelson said, what
Great Britain needed, after two weary years of waiting, was
not a brilliant victory, but the annihilation of the enemy.
^^Only numbers can annihilate." His other dictum, ap-
plied to the actual situation here discussed, ^'If Calder
with eighteen gets fairly alongside their twenty seven or
eight sail, by the time the enemy has beat our fleet soundly.
118 NAVAL STRATEGY
they will do ns no more harm this year,** was equally
just ; but it is one thing to point out the reasonable consola-
tion of a situation and quite another to approve the action
from which it has resulted. A British eighteen against an
allied twenty-nine might have removed both from the board,
leaving the balance just as it was; a British thirty-four
against the same number would have insured annihilation.
The odds, twenty-nine to eighteen, were almost the same
that Nelson himself had lately anticipated for his own di-
vision,— twenty to twelve ; and, while he avowed his in-
tention to fight under such circumstances, he guarded the
avowal with qualifications which indicated his opinion of
the seriousness of the undertaking.]
The search for and establishment of leading principles —
always few — around which considerations of detail group
themselves, will tend to reduce confusion of impression
to simplicity and directness of thought, with consequent fa-
cility of comprehension. It must be noted likewise that
while steam has fecilitated all naval movements, whether
strategical or tactical, it has also brought in the element of
communications to an extent which did not before exist.
The communications are, perhaps, the most controlling
feature of land strategy; and the dependence of steam
ships upon renewing their limited supply of coal, con-
trasted with the independence of sailing ships as to the
supply of their power of motion, is exactly equivalent to
the dependence of an army upon its communications. It
may be noted, too, that, taking one day with another, the
wind in the long run would average the same for each of
two opponents, so that in the days of sail there would be
less of the inequality which results from the tenure of coal-
ing stations, or from national nearness to the seat of war.
Coal will last a little longer, perhaps, than the supplies an
army can carry with it on a hurried march, but the anxiety
about it is of the same character ; and in the last analysis
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 119
it is food and coal, not legs and engines, which are the
motive powers on either element.
The days when fleets lay becalmed are gone, it is tnie ;
but gone also are the days when, with four or five months
of food and water below, they were ready to follow the
enemy to the other side of the world without stopping.
Nelson, in 1803-1806, had always on board three months'
provisions and water, and aimed to have five months' ; that
is, to be independent of conmiunications for nearly five
months. If it is sought to lessen the strategic difficulty
by carrying more coal, there is introduced the tactical
drawback of greater draught, with consequent slower speed
and more sluggish handling; or, if tonnage is not in-
creased, then armor and guns are sacrificed, a still more
important consideration. The experience of Admiral Roz-
hestvensky in this matter is recent and instructive. His
difficulties of supply, and chiefly of coal, are known ; the
most striking consequence is the inconsiderate manner in
which, without necessity, he stuffed his vessels with coal
for the last run of barely a thousand miles. That he did
this can be attributed reasonably only to the impression
produced upon his mind by his coaling difficulties, for the
evident consequence of this injudicious action was to put
his ships in bad condition for a battle which he knew was
almost inevitable.
Both the power and the difficulties due to steam call for
a more comprehensive and systematic treatment of the art of
war at sea, and for the establishment of definite principles
upon which it reposes. To do this is simply a particular in-
stance of the one object for which the War College exists.
As the principles of the art of war are few, while embracing
many features, so the principle of the War College is one ;
namely, the study of the art of war and the exposition of its
principles. Like the body, it has but one backbone though
many ribs. When these principles have been more or less
120 NAVAL STRATEGY
saccessfuUy defined, the way is open to a clearer compre-
hension of naval history, a more accurate perception of the
causes of success or &ilure in naval campaigns. Study of
these, superimposed upon an adequate grasp of principles,
contributes to the naval strategist the precise gain which
the practice of a profession gives to a man — a lawyer, for
instance — who has already mastered the principles. Ex-
tensive study of cases gives firmer grasp, deeper undeiv
standing, wider views, increased aptitude and quickness to
apprehend the critical features in any suit, as distinct from
details of less relative importance.
When I was a midshipman, a very accomplished officer,
the late Admiral Goldsborough, told me of his bewilder-
ment in listening to the arguments of eminent lawyers in
a difficult suit. Later in the day, meeting the judge who
presided, he said to him, ^^ Upon my word, I don't under-
stand how you can see your way through such a maze of
plausibilities as were presented by the two sides." The
judge replied, ^ There are in such contentions a very few,
perhaps only one or two, really decisive considerations of
fact or principle. Keeping those firmly in mind, much of
the argument sheds off, as irrelevant, or immaterial, and
judgment is therefore easy." This is the advantage of the
habit of mind bred by study, when principles are under-
stood. Such decisive considerations correspond essentially
to the leading feature, or features, which constitute ** the
key" of a military situation.^ A mass of confusing in-
1 Clausewitz pokes some mild fun at the expression ''the key'' of a
militarj theater, or situation ; which probably does come too easily to the
lips, or to the pen, as if in itself conveying an encyclopsBdia of explanation.
The analogies of the use of the word in other relations, however, Justify its
application to military conditions. In the Judgment of the writer, the use
of it has the special advantage of conducing to sustain the desirable im-
pression that in most military situations, or problems, there is some one lead-
ing feature, so far primary, that, amid many important details, it affords a
central idea upon which concentration of purpose and dispositions may
fiMten, and so obtain unity of design.
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 121
cidentB group themselves around certain decisive consid-
erations, by holding which firmly you not only understand
more easily the determining factors in a particular case,
but are fitting yourself more and more to judge any mili-
tary case put before you ; and that, too, with the rapidity
for which military urgency often calls. '
Here is seen the value of land warfare to the naval stu-
dent. In the first place, land warfare has a much more
extensive narrative development, because there has been
very much more land fighting than sea ; and also, perhaps
because of this larger amount of material, much more ef-
fort has been made to elicit the underlying principles by
formal analysis. Further, with the going of uncertainty
and the coming of certainty into the motive power, a chief
distinction between the movements of fleets and armies
has disappeared. Unless, therefore, one is prepared to dis-
card as useless what our predecessors have learned, it is in
the study of the best military writers that we shall find the
most ample foundations on which to build the new struc-
ture. Not attempting the vain, because useless, labor of
starting on unbroken ground, we will accept what is al-
ready done as clear gain, and build. No doubt — and no
fear — but we shall find differences enpugh; no one will
mistake the new house for the old when it is finished ; yet
the two will have a strong resemblance, and the most
marked contrasts will but bring out more clearly than ever
the strong features common to both.
The definitions of strategy, as usually given, confine the
application of the word to military combinations, which
embrace one or more fields of operations, either wholly dis-
tinct or mutually dependent, but always regarded as actual
or immediate scenes of war. However this may be on
shore, a French writer is unquestionably right in pointing
out that such a definition is too narrow for naval strategy.
«« This,'' he says, ^^ differs from military strategy, in that it
122 NAVAL STRATEGY
is as necessary in peace as in war. Indeed, in peace it may
gain its most decisive victories by occupying in a country,
either by purchase or treaty, excellent positions which
would perhaps hardly be got in war. It learns to profit
by all opportunities of settling on some chosen point of a
coast, ana to render definitiye an occupation which at first
was only transient"
This particular differentiation of naval strategy is due to
the unsettled or politically weak conditions of the regions
to which navies give access, which armies can reach only
by means of navies, and in which the operations of an
army, if attempted, depend upon control of the sea. If a
nation wishes to exert political influence in such unsettled
regions it must possess bases suitably situated; and the
needs of commerce in peace times often dictate the neces-
sity of such possessions, which are acquired, as the French
Tmter says, when opportunity offers.
In Europe, the great armies now prevent such acquisi-
tions, except at the cost of war ; although it is perhaps a
little difficult to maintain this statement in the face -of the
recent annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In truth,
however, southeastern Europe^ owing to the weakness of
Turkey, brings to the back door of Europe just that sort
of condition which for the most part is to be found only in
the remoter regions which navies reach ; while the political
upset in Turkey gave the opportunity, and the pretext, for
Austria to act, — to consolidate her power in a strategic
position, which, to say the least, advances her towards the
^gean, a goal desirable for her commercial future. Thus,
also, passing over more ancient historical instances, Eng-
land within ten years of peace occupied Cyprus and Egypt
under terms and conditions on their face transient; but
which in the former case have led to a formal cession, and
in the latter, after over a quarter of a century, have not yet
ended in an evacuation of the country. She there still
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 128
holds the possession which is nine points of the law, despite
the long continued^ but at last apparently appeased, dis-
content of France and Russia.
Similarly, in later years, France has possessed herself of
the territory of Tunis and of its port Bizerta, the possi-
bilities of which as a naval station are highly spoken of,
and appear to be superior to those of Algiers in important
hydrographical particulars, as well as in nearness to a nar-
row part of the Mediterranean; in closeness, that is, to
the necessary line of communication between the Straits
of Gibraltar and the Suez Canal, the critical link in the
European route to the Far East, to India, and to Australia.
Again, there is the German position of Kiao-Chau, con-
cerning the concession of which by China the Chancellor
of the German Empire said at the time that the need of a
base in the Far East, for both commercial and political —
that is, naval — reasons, had long been foreseen. Conse-
quently upon opportune occasion it had been acquired by
pressure upon China. The Caroline and other Pacific
Islands purchased by Germany since these lectures were
first written are illustrations of the same truth, stated by
the French writer quoted, that " Naval Strategy has for its
end to found, support, and increase, as well in peace as
in war^ the sea power of a country." I doubt, indeed,
whether the same is not true of land strategy; but
the positions in which it is interested — the scenes of
land warfare — are so well understood, and so firmly held
by long prescriptive right, that they cannot ordinarily be
transferred, except at the cost of war. The diplomatist, as
a rule, only affixes the seal of treaty to the work done by
the successful soldier. It is not so with a large proportion
of strategic points upon the sea. The above positions have
all been acquired in peace, and without hostilities. The
same is true of the acquisition of the Hawaiian Islands by
the United States, accomplished long after the writing of
124 NAVAL STRATEGY
these lectures. Such possessions are obtained so often
without actual war, because the first owners on account of
weakness are not able to make the resistance which con-
stitutes war; or, for the same reason of weakness, feel
the need of political connection with a powerful naval
state.
Closely associated with this point of view, which de-
pends upon the usual remoteness of the positions thus
acquired from the country acquiring them, is the very
large geographical scale upon which naval operations are
conducted as compared with those on land. This was an
aspect which struck the late General Sherman, when he
did me the favor to read the original draft of these lectures.
Bases coincident with the whole seacoast of a country,
lines of communication hundreds of miles long, leading to
objectives equally remote, movements at the rate of hun-
dreds of miles in a day, impressed the imagination which
had conceived and effected the noted March to the Sea.
Another illustration of naval strategy in time of peace,
which also depends in large measure upon the great dis-
tances which separate the strategic centers of interest,—
centers, for example, such as those of the Atlantic and
Pacific coasts of the United States, or those of Great
Britain in the Narrow Seas and in the Mediterranean, — is
to be seen in the changed disposition of navies at the
present time. It would be interesting to estimate how
much this is due to circumstances, to changes in inter-
national conditions, and how much to the greater at-
tention to and comprehension of the principles and re-
quirements of strategy, now to be found in naval officers,
as compared with the placid acquiescence of former genera-
tions in routine traditions. I think it would be safe to say in
this connection that the present recognition of the neces-
sity for concentration is an advance due to study, to in-
tellectual appreciation of a principle and of the military
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 125
ineptness and danger of the former method of distributing
the force of a nation in many quarters during peace ; but
that the particular methods in which this appreciation has
shown itself are the result of international conditions. As
an instance may be cited the present concentration of the
British fleet in home waters. This is an immediate reflec-
tion of Grerman naval development. A corollary to this
change in the distribution of the fleet is the enhanced im-
portance of the Chatham dockyard and the initiation of a
new base at Rosyth. Both are illustrations of strategic
positions established or developed in peace.
Another instance, of more value for an analysis, is the
concentration of the United States battle-fleet in one com-
mand and one body. This illustrates the effect of the
simple principle upon the minds of those who direct the
navy, and also has a particular indicative value ; for inter-
national relations have not as yet compelled that concen-
tration to be localized, either in the Atlantic or Pacific, as
that of Great Britain has been in home waters. The con-
centration is due to a simple recogpoition of principle, not to
pressure of circumstances. It is known in the navy, how-
ever, that the recognition was first made in the process of
war games at this College. That this concentration at
present is in the Atlantic is merely the continuance of a
tradition that our chief danger is from Europe, as for a
long time was the case. This may be true now, or it may
not; circumstances, that is, the developments of interna-
tional relations, will determine from time to time the place
of concentration, as it has for Great Britain. In connec-
tion with this line of thought, let it be noted that in the
round-the-world cruise of the battle-fleet, a conspicuous
matter for observation was the disappearance of the small
squadrons and scattered vessels which once testified the
general naval policy of governments.
The necessity for such sustained naval concentrations
126 NAVAL STRATEGY
depends again upon the oharacteristic which above all dif-
ferentiates naval strategy from that upon land. This char-
aoteristio is the mobility of navies as compared with
armies, the outcome of the very different surfaces over
which they respectively move. A properly disposed fleet
is capable of movement to a required strategic position
with a rapidity to which nothing on land compares. This
necessitates a corresponding preparation on the other side,
which at the least must be ready to get there equidly
rapidly and equally concentrated. All this is mobilization ;
a process common to land and sea, but differing both in
the scale and in the rapidity with which it can be con-
ducted. At sea, for navies, the process also is simple;
which again means that it can be rapid. Complication
means loss of time. For these reasons, while the disposi-
tion of armies in peace must be maintained with direct
reference to war, the difficulty of mobilization for the other
party permits a dispersion of the forces on land which is
impolitic in naval dispositions. In the mobilization of
a land force, concentration, miUtarily understood, is the
prime object, as it is with navies ; but it is the second step,
that is, it follows the local activities which mobilize the
several corps. With navies it should be less the first
step than the condition at the instant war breaks out,
however unexpected. Then again the impedimenta, the
train, which constitutes so large a factor in military move-
ments, exists for navies only in a very modified degree ;
and the train possesses substantially the same mobility
as the battleships themselves, because the open field of the
sea offers wider facilities than roads can do. All these ad-
vantages in mobility mean rapidity in time ; and this re>
duction in the scale of time required for movement means
expansion in the scale of distance that can be covered, in
order to overpower a dispersed or an unwary enemy.
Thus when the Japanese torpedo vessels surprised the
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 127
unready Russian fleet before Port Arthur, they opened
hostilities some hundreds of miles from their point of
departure.
^* The possession of the strategic points/' says the Arch-
duke Charles, ''decides the success of the operations of
war." This Napoleon also expressed in the words, ^^ War
is a business of positions." It is necessary, however, to
guard against a mistake so common that it seems almost to
be ^ permanent bias of the human mind in naval matters.
It is one that has come home to myself gradually and for-
cibly throughout my reading; a result which illustrates
aptly what I have just said of the gain by reading widely
after principles are understood. I knew long ago, and
quoted in these lectures, Jomini's assertion that it is pos-
sible to hold too many strategic points ; but it is only by
subsequent reading that I have come to appreciate how
common is the opinion that the holding of each additional
port adds to naval strength. Naval strength involves,
unquestionably, the possession of strategic points, but its
greatest constituent is the mobile navy. If having many
ports tempts you to scatter your force among them, they
are worse than useless. To this is to be added another
remark, also due to Jomini, that if you cannot hope to con-
trol the whole field, it is an advantage to hold such points
as give you control of the greater part of it. The farther
to^^trd an enemy you advance your tenable position by the
acquisition of strategic points, or by the positions occupied
in force by army or navy, the better ; provided, in so doing,
you do not so lengthen your lines of communication as to
endanger your forces in the advanced positions.
An exceptionally strong illustration of the benefit of
such advanced position is afforded by the Island of Cuba
and the effect exercised upon the control of the Gulf of
Mexico, according as a position in that island may be held
or not by the United States. While Cuba was Spanish,
128 UAVAL STRATEGY
the United States had to depend upon Pensacola and
the Mississippi as points upon which to base naval opera-
tions. If, in such conditions, war arose with a European
state, Cuba being neutral, the enemy venturing his battle-
fleet into the Gulf of Mexico would not thereby expose his
rear or his communications to attack in force to the same
extent that he would now with the United States cruisers
based upon Ouantanamo, duly fortified. Between oppo-
nents of equal force this advanced position gives a decided
advantage to the occupant by the facility it affords to
molest and interrupt the supplies, and especially the coal
supplies, of a hostile fleet attempting to maintain itself
within the Gulf, or advanced in the Caribbean towards the
Isthmus. As regards the Gulf coast alone. Key West to
some extent would fulfil the office of Guantanamo. The
two together are a better defence for our Gulf region as a
whole than localized land defences at particular points of
the region would be. As regards influence over the Canal
Zone, the superiority in situation of Guantanamo over Key
West is obvious. The deterrent effect of such positions
upon a fleet does not apply to the same degree to single
fast cruisers or small squadrons, because the loss of a few
of them can be risked for the sake of annojdng an enemy.
The supreme naval instance of an advanced position in
former times was the British blockade of French ports, by
which the safety of British commerce was assured and the
invasion in force of the British Islands prevented. A
closely analogous disposition is the present concentration
of the British battle-fleet in the home waters, having in
view, as is well understood, immediate effective concentra-
tion against Germany in the North Sea. In case of war,
whatever particular measures may be then adopted, the
presence there of a fleet decisively superior to the German
covers effectively all British lines of communication from
the Atlantic; that is, practically with the entire world,
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 129
with a possible exception of the Baltic countries. The
same disposition intercepts all German sea communica-
tions except with the Baltic. It also covers the British
Islands against an invasion in force.
From these instances the general reason for taking up
such an advanced position is obvious. Behind your fleets,
thus resting on secure positions and closely knit to the
home country by well-guarded communications, the opera-
tions of commerce, transport, and supply can go on freely.
Into such a sea the enemy cannot venture in force about
equal to your own, — Germany, in the instance just cited,
into the Atlantic, or an enemy of the United States into
the Gulf, — because in the very act of venturing he ex-
poses his communications, and, in case of reverse, he is
too far away from his home ports. Cuba thus covers the
Gulf of Mexico, but would not have an equal material
effect upon operations against the North Atlantic Coast.
The British blockades of a century ago, on the contrary,
being pushed right up to the French shores, covered the
entire ocean and all approaches to the British Islands, be-
cause so far advanced. In virtue of that advance, while
maintained, they conferred upon the home country perfect
security from invasion with substantial immunity to the
commerce of the United Kingdom, the loss being less than
three per cent per annum.
To^y, the British Islands by their geographical situa-
tion alone, as towards Germany, themselves occupy an ad-
vanced position ; their control over the North Sea resembles
closely that of Cuba over the Gulf of Mexico, and their
defensive value to the communications of the country are
the same. Even German cruisers, — commerce destroyers,
— to resich the British commercial communications, must
run the gauntlet of the North Sea, and act with diminished
coal supply far from their bases of operation. The rear
and its communications cannot, we know, be protected
180 NAVAL STRATEGY
wholly from commerce destroyers in their attacks either
upon supply ships or conunerce. Such raids on the flanks
and rear of an army were frequent in the American War of
Secession. They can only be checked, not wholly pre-
vented, by light bodies, or by cruisers similar to those who
make them.
"Good partisan troops," says Jomini, whose experiences
antedated the American War of Secession by half a cen*
tury, '^ will always disturb convoys, whatever be the direc-
tion of the roads, even were that direction a perpendicular
from the center of the base to the center of the front of opera-
tions — the case in which they are least open to the attacks
of an enemy."
Such injuries, however, are not usually to be confounded
with the cutting, or even threatening, the communications.
They are the slight wounds of a campaign, not mortal blows ;
vexatious, not serious. It is a very different matter to have
a powerful fleet in a strong port close to the communications.
Raiding operations against commerce, or against an
enemy's communications, may proceed from remote colonial
positions. In former wars the French West India Islands,
Martinique and Guadeloupe, thus served as bases for French
cruisers against British commerce and supply vessels.
Provision against these raids did not then, and cannot now,
depend directly upon the distant home country. They
must be met by local dispositions. Such positions them-
selves illustrate particular cases of advanced positions, exer-
cising a specific, if limited, control. For instance, Grerman
Southwest Africa, as far as situation goes, has fitcilities for
molesting British intercourse with the Cape of Good Hope,
or beyond by that route. To meet such a condition pro-
vision likewise must be local. The effect of the British
concentration in the North Sea is in such cases indirect,
though reaL It imposes the question how far such detach-
ments, made before war, would be consistent with the
general scheme of German North Sea operations ; with the
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 181
further problem how &r the detachments could be sustained
in efficiency, in face of the difficulty of passing supplies
through the lines of British cruisers in the Nordi Sea and
Channel.
A distinct and great reinforcement to the effect of a line
of advanced positions is that it be continuous by land, and
extensive. Thus the ports of Cuba have value addi-
tional to their individual advantages, from the fact that
they not only are connected by land, but that this land bar-
rier is nine hundred miles long, a troublesome obstacle to an
enemy. In the same way, the effect of the British Islands
upon North Sea commerce is increased by the continuous-
ness of the land from the Straits of Dover to the north end
of Scotland.
The determination, therefore, of the strategic points of
a maritime area, such as the Gulf and Caribbean, or as the
Pacific, the two seas in which the United States is most
critically interested, must be followed by a selection
from among them, first, of those which have the most
decisive effect upon the control of the theater of war;
secondly, of those which represent the most advanced posi-
tion which the United States, in case war unhappily arose,
could occupy firmly, linked to it by intermediate positions
or lines, such that the whole would form a well-knit, com-
pact system from which she could not be dislodged by any
but a greatly superior force.
CHAPTER VII
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES
{Continued)
1. Stbatbgic Positions
THE stiategio value of any place depends upon
three principal conditions:
1. Its position, or more exactly its situation.
A place may have great strength, but be so sit-
uated with regard to the strategic lines as not to be worth
occupying.
2. Its military strength, offensive and defensive. A
place may be well situated and have large resources and
yet possess little strategic value, because weak. It may,
on the other hand, while not naturally strong, be given
artificial strength for defense. The word ^ fortify " means
simply to make strong.
8. The resources, of the place itself and of the sur-
rounding country. It is needless to explain the advan-
tages of copious resource or the disadvantages of the
reverse. A conspicuous example of a place strong both
for offense and defense, and admirably situated, yet with-
out natural resources, is Gibraltar. The maintenance of
this advanced post of Great Britain depended in the past
wholly upon her control of the sea. Resources that are
wanting naturally may be supplied artificially, and to a
greater extent now than formerly. Malta and Minorca
illustrate the same truth but to a less degree, and gen-
erally, in sea strategic points, the smaller the surrounding
friendly territory, the fewer the resources and the less the
strength. In 1798-1800 the French garrison at Valetta
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES
133
was cut off from the resoarces of the island of Malta by the
revolt of the islanders, supported by the British ; and being
rigidly blockaded by sea, its reeistance was ended by ex-
haustion. From these considerations it follows that, other
things being equal, a small island is of less strategic valae
than a lai^e one ; and a point like Key West, at the end of
a long narrow peninsula of restricted access, is in so far in-
ferior to Fensacola, and would be to Havana or Cienfuegos
if Cuba were a thriving country.
As an illustration of the advajitage of a lai^e island over
a small, or over several small ones, I will read you the
opinion of the well-known Admiral Rodney, found in an
official memorandum of the period of the War of American
Independence. Rodney had had a very long experience of
the West Indies, both in peace and war.
" Porto Rioo, in the bands of Great Britain, wiU be of in-
finite consequence, and of more value than all the Caribbee
Islands united — will be easily defended, and with leas ex-
pense than those islands ; the defense of which divides the
forces, and renders them an easier conquest to an active
enemy : but tliis island will be such a check to both France
and Spain, as nil! make their island of St. Domingo be in
perpetual danger, and, in the bands of Great Britain, en-
able her to cut off all supplies from Europe bound to St.
Domingo, Mexico, Cuba, or the Spanish Main; and, if
peopled with British subjectSn affoitl a speedy succour to
Jamfdca; and, when cu1tivate<l, employ more ships and
seamen tban all the Windward lalauda united."
In this you have an example of the material which, as I
have said before, naval history furnishes in abundance to
the student of the art of war. All the advantages of a
strategic point are here noted, though not quite in the
orderly, systematic manner at which a treatise on the art
of war would aim : Situation, relatively to Jamaica, Santo
Domingo and other Spanish [x>ssessions; defensive strength,
due to concentration, as compared with the disperaion of
Lesser Antilles; offensive strength aa against the com-
184 NAVAL STRATEGY
mnnicatioiiB of Spain with her colonies; and leeonices of
nomeions British subjects with their occupations, as well
as of British ships and seamen.
Where all three conditions, situation, intrinfflc strength,
and abundant resources, are found in the same place, it
becomes of great consequence strategically and may be of
the very first importance, though not always. For it must
be remarked that there are other considerations, lesser in
the purely military point of view, which enhance the con-
sequence of a seaport even strategically ; such as its being
a great mart of trade, a blow to which would cripple the
prosperity of the country ; or the capital, the fall of which
has a political effect additional to its importance otherwise.
Of the three principal conditions, the first, situation, is
the most indispensable ; because strength and resources can
be artificially supplied or increased, but it passes the power
of man to change the situation of a port which lies outside
the limits of strategic effect.
Generally, -value of situation depends upon nearness to a
sea route; to those lines of trade which, when drawn upon
the ocean common, are as imaginary as the parallels of
the chart, yet as really and usefully exist If the position
be on two routes at the same time, that is, near the cross-
ing, the value is enhanced. A cross-roads is essentially a
central position, facilitating action in as many directions as
there are roads. Those &miliar with works on the art of
land war will recog^nize the analogies. The value becomes
yet more marked if, by the lay of the land, the road to
be followed becomes very narrow; as at the Straits of
Gibraltar, the English Channel, and in a less degree the
Florida Strait. Perhaps narrowing should be applied to
every inlet of the sea, by which trade enters into and is dis-
tributed over a great extent of country ; such as the mouth
of the Mississippi, of the Dutch and Grerman rivers. New
York harbor, etc. As regards the sea, however, harbors
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 186
or the mouths of rivers are usually termini or entrepSts^ at
which goods are transshipped before going farther. If the
road be narrowed to a mere canal, or to the mouth of a
river, the point to which vessels must come is reduced
almost to the geometrical definition of a point and nearby
positions have great command. Suez presents this condi-
tion now, and Panama soon will.
Analogously, positions in narrow seas are more impor-
tant than those in the great ocean, because it is less possible
to avoid them by a circuit. If these seas are not merely
the ends — ^ termini ^^ — of travel but ^^ highway s,*' parts
of a continuous route ; that is, if commerce not only comes
to them but passes through to other fields beyond, the
number of passing ships is increased and thereby the stra-
tegic value of the controlling points. It may, perhaps,
be well to illustrate here, by the instance of the Medi-
terranean, the meaning I attach to the words ^^temttni"
and ^^ highways." Before the cutting of the Suez Canal,
the Levant and Isthmus were termini. Ships could not
pass ; nor goods, except by transshipment. Since the canal,
the Levant has become a point on a highway and its
sea is a highway of trade, not a terminu9 only. The
same remarks apply, of course, to the American Isthmus
and any future canal there. If Bermuda be compared
with Gibraltar, or even with Malta, as to position only, the
advantage of these will be seen at once and the argu-
ment concerning narrow seas illustrated ; for shipping must
pass close by them, while Bermuda, advantageous though
it is, regarded as a depot, and favorably situated for offen-
sive operations against usual trade routes, may be avoided
by a circuit, involving inconvenience and delay, but still
possible.
A radical difference underlying the conditions of land
and sea strategy is to be found in the fact that the land is
by nature full of obstacles, the removing or overcoming of
136 NAVAL STRATEGY
which by men's hands opens communications or roads. By
nature, the land is abnost all obstacle, the sea almost all
open plain* The roads which can be followed by an army
are therefore of limited number, and are generally known,
as well as their respective advantages ; whereas at sea the
paths by which a ship can pass from one point to another
are innumerable, especially if a steamer, content to make
a circnit. The conSion of winds. currJnte. eto.. cerbunly
do combine with shortness of distance to tie ships down
to certain general lines, but within these lines there is great
scope for ingenuity in dodging the search of an enemy.
Thus Rodney, in a despatch to the Admiralty concerning a
homeward-bound convoy from the West Indies, states that,
instead of going direct, it will proceed so as to reach the
latitude of the English Channel at least six hundred miles
west of it, and thence steer due east, thus deceiving the
enemy as to its position, as well as enabling the Admi-
ralty with certainty to reinforce the protecting ships. On
a later occasion he wrote, '* I have given the commanding
officer the strictest orders on no account to attempt the
Channel, but to gain the latitude of Cape Clear at least
nine hundred miles west of that cape and thence proceed."
So Napoleon in one of his condensed phrases said that the
determining elements in naval operations were ^^Fau%%e%
routes et mamenU perd/uMP
A very pertinent historical instance was in the pursuit
of Bonaparte's Egyptian expedition by Nelson in 1798.
The French commander-in-chief, after leaving Malta, laid
his course first for Crete, instead of towards Egypt. Nel-
son, satisfied as to the enemy's destination, naturally and
properly pushed direct for Egypt. Unluckily, he had not
a single frigate for lookout service. His track con-
sequentiy diverged from that of the French, and he lost
them ; the wake of the two fieets actually crossed on the
same night, but a light haze hid them from each other.
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 187
Such conditions made it necessary for Great Britain daring
the great wars to keep a close lookout, if not a block-
ade, at the entrance of the French harbors, which thus be-
came strategic pointB ; for if the fleet within once got away
and was lost to sight, nothing was left to the British com-
mander but to reason out as well as he could their probable
line of action.
An interesting illustration of the essential similarity of
conditions, under all the qualifications introduced by mod-
em development, is to be found in comparing the perplex-
ities of Admiral Togo in 1905 with those of Nelson in
1798. Nelson did not know whither the French were
bound ; he depended upon inference, deduced from indica-
tions and from existing political conditions. Togo did not
know what the Russians might attempt, whether fight or
flee, though their ultimate destination could be only Vladi-
vostok ; but as to the route they would take he had to de-
pend upon inference, in which known weather conditions
played a large part. Both admirals calculated rightly ; but
both underwent intervals of anxious suspense, because of
want of information. ^^ Even Admiral Togo," wrote one
of his staff, ^ certain as he had felt that the enemy must go
by way of Tsushima, began to be anxious as the days of
their expected arrival passed without their appearing."
Allowing for what wireless does, it may be said without
exaggeration that Togo did not learn where the enemy was
and what he was doing any sooner than Nelson did ; that
is, till he was seen by the Japanese scouts. He had lost
touch, or rather never had gained it other than by means
of common report, unofficially; not by his own vessels.
Like Nelson at the Nile, Togo had no certainty before the
enemy was seen ; in the one case from a masthead of a
battleship, in the other by a lookout vessel only a hundred
miles distant from the flagship. Both dilemmas arose from
failure to watch the enemy in his port of departure or at
188 NAVAL STRATEGY
some unavoidable point of passage. Whether any blame
attaches for this fiulore is another question; the incon-
venience was due to scouting not having been pushed far
enough forward.
For the reason that the open ocean offers such large op-
portunity for avoiding a position recognized as dangerous,
first-rate strategic points will be fewer within a given area
on sea than on land, — a truth which naturally heightens the
strategic value of such as do exist For instance, Hawaii,
in the general scheme of the Pacific, is a strategic point of
singular importance. It is a great center of movement, an
invaluable half-way house, an advanced position of great
natural power of offense as a base of operations and for
supply and repair; but in the control of commerce its
effect is lessened by the wide sweep open to vessels wish-
ing to avoid it. On the other hand, possession gives it
defensive value additional to offensive, by excluding an
enemy from using it, whether for war or for commerce.
The sea, indeed, realizes a supposed case of the Archduke
Charles. He says,
**In open countries, which are everywhere practicable,
and in which the enemy can move without obstacle in
every direction, there are either no strategic points or there
are but few ; on the contrary, many are to be met in bro-
ken countries, where nature has irrevocably traced the
roads which must be followed."
As a ship goes from Europe to Central America she
passes first through a wholly open country until she
reaches the West Indies; there she enters one that is
broken, and abounding in strategic points of greater or
less value.
The amount of trade that passes enters into the question
as well as the neame%9 of the port to the route. Whatever
affects either affects the value of the position. It is the
immense increase of German industry, commerce, and
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 189
shipping that has made Great Britain, by the strategic
position of the British Islands, the menacing object she has
become in Oerman eyes. The growth of German trade,
combined with the strategic position of Great Britain, has
revolutionized the international relations of Europe. A
similar new commercial condition, the Panama Canal, will
change the strategic value of nearly every port in the
Caribbean and of many in the Pacific, because of the con-
sequent increase of trade passing that way. Imagine Suez
closed again forever, and consider the twofold effect,-^
upon the Cape of Gk>od Hope ports and upon those of the
Mediterranean. Of this we have historical demonstration
in the effect upon the fortunes of Venice and Genoa from
the discovery of the Cape route. Sea power primarily
depends upon commerce, which follows the most advanta-
geous roads ; military control follows upon trade for its
furtherance and protection. Except as a system of high-
ways joining country to country, the sea is an unfruitful
possession. The sea, or water, is the great medium of
circulation established by nature, just as money has been
evolved by man for the exchanges of products. Change
the flow of either in direction or amount, and you modify
the political and industrial relations of mankind.
In general, however, it will be found that by sea, as by
land, useful strategic points will be where highways pass,
and especially where they cross or converge; above all,
where obstacles force parallel roads to converge and use
a single defile, such as a bridge. It may be remarked here
that while the ocean is easier and has, generally, fewer
obstacles than the land, yet the obstacles are more truly
impassable. Ships cannot force their way over or through
obstacles, but must pass round them — turn them. His-
torical feats, such as those of Napoleon crossing the Little
St. Bernard, Macdonald the Spliigen, and the Russians in
1877 the Balkans, seem to show that nothing is im-
140 NAVAL STRATEGY
passable to infantry; but modem ships are not to be
dragged over diy land, like the ancient galleys. Hence,
while on land the defenses of what may seem to be the
only practicable road may be unexpectedly turned by an
army, as the Persians by a mountain path reached the rear
of the Greeks at Thermopyls, assurance can be felt that
ships can follow only known tracks. Where there are
many of these, as, for instance, the passages between the
Windward West India Islands, the situation-value of the
ports at each passage is proportionately diminished.
Consider, for instance, the enormous effect upon the
value of Port Royal, Martinique, and Port Castries in
Santa Lucia — already good strategic points — if a contin-
uous line of land extended from the east end of Haiti,
through the Windward Islands, to South America, broken
only at the passage between the two islands named. Their
influence then would be almost identical with that of Gib-
raltar. As it is, they are in a class with Hawaii and Ber-
muda; and lower in the class, because their positions,
though excellent, are less unique than either. They have
rivals within their i*espective areas, while the two others
have not. There can be no question that, whatever the
intrinsic militisuy strength of the ports in the Windward
Islands, their situation-value is seriously lowered by the
fact that an enemy's shipping or supply vessels boimd to
the Isthmus can, by a circuit, avoid passing near. Jamaica
cannot be equally avoided, still less the Chiriqui Lagoon,
least of all Colon when the Panama Canal becomes a fact.
It is possible, for instance, that in war between Great
Britain and France a ship bound to the Isthmus, wishing
to avoid passing near Santa Lucia, could go through the
Anegada or Mona Passage; and, in fact, such evasions
were often successfully resorted to by the French, to avoid
Rodney's lying in wait
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 141
2. Military Strength
We come now to the second element in the strategic
-value of any position, namely, its military strength, offen-
sive or defensive.
It is possible to imagine a point very well placed yet
practically indefensible, becanse the cost of defensive works
would be greater than the worth of the place when forti-
fied. A much stronger site, although somewhat further
off, would throw such a position out of consideration.
There are several elements, advantageous or disadvan-
tageous, which enter into the characteristics making a port
strong or weak, but they wQl aU be found to range them-
selves under the two heads of defensive and offensive
strength.
I. Defensive strength.
The defense of seaports, as distinguished from the offen-
sive use made of them, ranges under two heads : 1. Defense
against attack from the sea ; that is, by ships. 2. Defense
against attack from the land ; that is, by troops which in
the absence of resistance may have landed at some near
point of the coast and come up in the rear of the fortress.
As offensive efforts made from a fortified seaport, to
facilitate which it has been fortified, are always by ships
toward the sea, the sea may properly be spoken of as the
front of such a port, while the land side is the rear.
The recent siege of Port Arthur has illustrated the
propositions just advanced. Port Arthur was defended
against naval attack and against land attack, in front and
in rear, and attack was made from both quarters. The
siege illustrated also another proposition, made in the orig-
inal draft of these lectures, that the defense of ports, in
the narrow sense of the word ^^ defense," belongs chiefly to
the army. The Russian navy contributed little to the de-
142 NAVAL STRATEGY
f ense. If it had been in better moral and material condi-
tion, and efficiently nsed, it might have contributed very
materially to the endurance of the port by offensive opera-
tions ; by sorties, by harassing the enemy. Endurance is
a principal element of defensive strength in any general
strategic scheme. The great gain of defense, in the re-
stricted sense of the word, is delay. The defense of Port
Arthur gained time for the Russians ; had the defense been
more obstinate, more time still would have been gained.
As it was, ample opportunity was obtained for the Baltic
fleet to arrive ; and no one can tell how far the delay con^
tributed to prolong the land campaign, which, as it was,
left Japan with the most of her work still before her, if
Russia stood firm.
An illustration of the character of operations by which a
navy contributes to defense, to delay, was afforded in the
same war by the capture at sea of a Japanese transport
carrying a large part of the siege g^uns for the siege of Port
Arthur. This sensibly prolonged the siege. It was an at^
tack upon the communications of the besiegers. Attacks
of that character, besides the actual injury inflicted, neces-
sitate to the enemy an elaboration of precautions which
sensibly protracts the issue. Such action, however, though
defensive in result, is not so in method. It therefore is
called, properly enough, an offensive-defensive, and is ab-
solutely essential to any scheme of defense. Napoleon said
that no position can be permanently maintained if depend-
ent upon defense only ; if not prepared for offensive meas-
ures, or if it fails to use them. The enemy must be
disturbed or he will succeed. At one time in the history
of war this truth was so clearly apprehended, and the con-
ditions of passive resistance so thoroughly appreciated, that
the endurance of a besieged fortress could be calculated
almost as exactly as a mathematical solution; that is,
granting no attempt at relief. In a properly coordinated
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 148
system of coast defense this counter-action, molestation,
the offensive-defensive, belongs to the navy.
Coast defense in the restricted sense, when action is lim-
ited to repelling an immediate attack, is the part of the
army chiefly; hence the scheme of preparations for such
defense also belongs primarily to the army. That being
the case, it is not for naval officers to distribute the prep-
arations among the branches of the military service ; but it
is permissible to note that the duty of planning fortifica-
tions and superintending their construction is by accepted
tradition assigned to military engineers.
It should be noted also that such tactical considerations
as the extent of the outer lines necessary to cover the land-
ward defensive works of a place, and the consequent num-
bers of the garrison required to insure their maintenance,
are questions of expert military knowledge. It follows,
and will be still more evident as the naval requirements
develop in the ensuing treatment, that sound decision in
the selection of naval stations at home and abroad is for
combined military and naval consultation. Indeed, every
question and every preparation touching seacoast opera-
tions present this feature of combination between army and
navy, working to a common end.
In all such cooperations there will be found conflicting
conditions, as there will in most plans of campaign and in
positions taken for battle, — strong here, weak there. War
in all its aspects offe^ a continual choice of difficulties and
advantages. It is in reconciliation effected among these
as far as possible, in allowance of due predominance to the
most important, in disregard of difficulties where practica-
ble, that the art of the commander consists. The one most
demoralizing attitude is that which demands exemption
from risks, or is daunted unduly by them.
The siege of Port Arthur illustrated another truth,
which will be found of general application; namely, that
144 NAVAL STRATEGY
coast fortresses are in greater danger of capture by land
attacks than by those from the sea. Santiago showed the
same, imperfect as were its sea defenses. The reason is ob-
vious : no vessel, no constmction resting upon the water,
can bear the same weight of ordnance and the same armor
that a land work can. To this inferiority modem warfare
has added the additional danger to ships of the submarine
mine, the effects of which upon the movements possible to
vessels were so often and so strikingly illustrated in the
war between Japan and Russia. No similar equal danger
exists for land fortifications. In brief, ships are unequally
matched against forts, in the particular sphere of forts; just
as cavalry and infantry are not equal, either to the other,
in the other's proper sphere. A ship can no more stand
up against a fort costing the same money, than the fort
could run a race with the ship. The quality of the one is
ponderousness, enabling great passive strength; that of
the other is mobility.
Countries which are entirely surrounded by water, or
whose land frontiers are bordered by communities of much
less military strength, as is the case with Great Britain
and the United States, may easily fall into the error of
defending ports only against attack from the sea. For
ports which are conunercial only, not essential to naval
activities, this must answer; for there is a limit to the
money that can be spent upon coast fortifications. But
any scheme of naval activity rests upon bases, as do all
military operations. Bases are the indispensable founda-
tions upon which the superstructure of offense is raised.
Important naval stations, therefore, should be secured
against attack by land as well as by sea. To illustrate this
fact was the aim of General Wood in recent conjoint oper-
ations about Boston, and the ease with which the city fell
shows the need of defense by land. Purely commercial
cities are defended sufficientiy by the condition that a large
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 145
hostile expedition will be employed only in securing an
adequate result, a decided military gain, such as the de-
struction of a great naval base ; while a small landing force,
though it conceivably might capture a commercial port,
can do so only by a surprise, which in effect is a mere raid,
liable to interception, and in any event productive of no
decided military advantage.
In the English maneuvers of August, 1888, it was found,
as might have been predicted, that it is impossible for a
blockading force to prevent the escape of single ships.
When such had escaped, there was shown, first, what has
already been said as to the perplexity of the blockade as to
the direction taken ; and second,, the futility of depending
upon the navy alone for the defense of seaports. The es-
caped cruisers appeared before half a dozen English ports,
which in the absence of fortifications had at once to admit
their powerlessness and to pay ransom.
The ease of running a blockade has been very much
qualified since 1888 by the development given to station-
ary submarine mines placed by the outside enemy. The
effect of these upon cruisers, even of moderate size, and
still more upon a fleet of battleships, is not only the actual
injury possible from them, but the delay imposed. This
delay indeed is in the strictest sense a strategic factor. As
illustrated in the war between Japan and Russia, the out-
side fleet is enabled to choose its situation within pretty
wide limits, in reliance upon the inevitable period of time
the inside will need to assure its passage, by determin-
ing a safe channel. Yet, while this is true, it is not so
unqualifiedly.
Skill and vigilance may now, as in all ages and condi-
tions, enable the one party or the other to get the better;
especially the one inside. I presume that a simple appli-
cation of the three-point problem, to determining a straight
channel through a presumed mine field, might be carried
146 NAVAL STRATEGY
on by three lights placed at night for the observers ; that
such channel might be swept by night as well as by day ;
and that, once cleared, further laying of mines might be pre-
vented by adequate scouting. Range lights will give pilot-
age for the channel cleared. Yet» granting that such means
may be efficacious, the need for using them and the oner-
ousness of their demands show how conditions have al-
tered in twenty years. Obviously, too, the outsiders must
try to stop such operations, with the result of a good deal
of fighting corresponding to that which the army calls
** outpost."
The ransoms levied by cruisers in 1888, or the alterna-
tive bombardment, illustrate both the need of sea-front
fortifications for commercial ports, and the needlessness of
works on their land side. The cruisers could not have
stood up against a very few heavy guns, and they had not
force to attempt a landing. For a fleet, or for a great
landing army, the game at a mere commercial port would
be too small; not worth the candle, as the French say.
Such expeditions would direct effort against a naval base.
Now that bombardment of unfortified seaports is forbidden
by international agreement, the question remains to what
extent it will suit the policy of a nation by non-fortifica-
tion to permit the tranquil occupation of its convenient
harbors by an enemy's vessels; for the purpose, for in-
stance, of coaling, or repairing, or demanding supplies.
Of course any molestation of vessels so engaged is ac-
tive war, and would at once deprive the port of the
immunity attendant upon not being fortified.
A word is due on the subject of coast-defense ships, al-
though we hear less of these now than once. A floating
defense which is confined to the defensive, by which is
meant that it can put forth its offensive power only when
the enemy sees fit to attack, is inferior to the same amount
of offensive power established ashore, for several reasons :
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 147
(1) Because it cannot bear the same amount of weight as a
land work ; (2) because it is open to modes of attack to
which the land work is not open, as the torpedo and the
ram ; (3) because the veiy factor which constitutes its chief
advantage, its mobility, is also a source of weakness by neces-
sitating the attention of a large part of the personnel or
garrison to the mere handling of the fortification. To this
is to be added a consideration, important to my mind, though
I have not seen it noticed elsewhere, that a system of coast
defense relying mainly upon ships is liable to be drawn in
mass to a point other than the enemjr's real objective, and so
to leave the latter uncovered. Land works are not open to
that mistake. Nelson in his scheme for the defense of the
Thames particularly and of the southeast coast of England
generally, in 1801, wrote a paper which illustrates his com-
prehensive military genius as really as his more conspicuous
achievements do. In this he laid peculiar stress upon the
order that the coast-defense vessels, the blockships, as they
were called, should on no account be moved imder apparent
imminent necessity. Their stations had been carefully
and deliberately chosen, in quiet consideration ; they must
not be changed under the influence of hasty apprehension.
Permanent works, established in quiet moments on sound
principles, have the advantage that they cannot be shifted
under the influence of panic. The distributions of the
American fleet during the Spanish war furnish interesting
matter for study as to the effects of popular fears on mili-
tary dispositions ; of which, for that matter, general history
affords many examples.
A moment's thought will show that one mode of coast
defense by the navy to which attention is veiy largely
directed nowadays, that by torpedo-vessels and submarine
boats, is not strictly defensive in its action, but offensive.
For harbor defense, torpedo-vessels are confined almost
wholly to an offensive rOle, — the offensive-defensive,—
148 NAVAL STRATEGY
becaufie an attack by a fleet npon a port will usually be by
daylight, while torpedo-vesselsy in the general scheme of
harbor defense, must limit their efforts mainly to the night.
The chief rOle of the torpedo-vessels is in attaeh upon a
hostile fleet which is trying to maintain its ground near the
port
The great extension and development given to torpedo-
vessels since these lectures were written do not seem, as
far as experience goes, to have affected the general prin-
ciples here enunciated; nor in actual war has anything
occurred to contradict the conclusions indicated to students
of naval matters twenty years ago. Torpedo-vessels, when
relying upon themselves alone, have always attacked by
night. By day they have merely completed destruction
already substantially achieved by the battleships ; and this
probably is the function that will fall to them in the un-
usual case of a fleet seriously attacking fortifications.
They then may poniard the wounded, especially if left be-
hind by their friends. The increase of size in torpedo-
vessels, above the torpedo-boat of first and second classes,
in which they began, has brought with it gun armament,
as was then predicted; and gun fights between the tor-
pedo-vessels of the opposing sides, much resembling the
skirmishes incident to land sieges, were frequent in the
operations around Port Arthur. Had the defensive r61e
of the Russians fallen to the Japanese, we doubtless should
have had more torpedo attack — the offensive-defensive
— directed against the outside fleet. Their audacious at-
tempts to block the harbor, by sinking vessels in the
channel ways, give assurance that, in the reverse case,
similar energy would have been directed against ships
attempting to hold their ground near the port.
Defenses, whether natural or artificial, covering strategic
points such as coast fortresses, play a very important part
in all warfare, because they interpose such passive resist-
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 149
ance to the assailant as to enable smaller force to hold
in check a larger. Their passive strength thos becomes
equivalent to a certain number of men and allows the
holder to let loose just so many to join the active army
in the field. The defenses of Port Arthur permitted the
tenure of the place by a much smaller number of men
than the besiegers were compelled to employ in the siege.
This evidently signifies that in the field campaign the Rus-
sian army was by so much more numerous, and the Japan-
ese by so much fewer. Places so held serve many purposes
and, in some proportion, are absolutely necessary to the con-
trol of any theater of war. They are as essential to sea as
to land war; but, looked upon as conducive to the attain-
ment of the objects of war, they are to be considered inferior
to the army in the field. To take an extreme case, a reduo'
tio ad ab^urdumj if the number of such posts be so great
that their garrisons swallow up the whole army of the
state, it is evident that either some of them must be aban-
doned or the enemy's army be left unopposed. Thus
Jomini sajrs, ^ When a state finds itself reduced to throw
the greater part of its force into its strong places, it is near
touching its ruin." This received illustration in the war
between Japan and Russia. Russia was reduced to shut-
ting up her fleet in Port Arthur and Vladivostok; and
persistence in this course, whether by choice or by necessity,
prognosticated the ruin which overtook the naval predomi-
nance which at the beginning of the war she actually
possessed over Japan.
In the sphere of maritime war, the navy represents the
army in the field ; and the fortified strategic harbors, upon
which it falls back as ports of refuge after battle or defeat,
for repairs or for supplies, correspond precisely to strong-
holds, like Metz, Strasburg, Ulm, upon which, systemati-
cally occupied with reference to the strategic character of
the theater of war, military writers agree the defense of a
160 NAVAL STRATEGY
country must be founded. The foundation, however, must
not be taken for the superstructure for which it exists.
In war, the defensive exists mainly that the offensive
may act more freely. In sea warfare, the offensive is
assigned to the navy ; and if the latter assumes to itself the
defensive, it simply locks up a part of its trained men in
garrisons, which could be filled as well by forces that have
not their peculiar skill. To this main proposition I must
add a corollary, that if the defense of ports, many in num-
ber, be attributed to the navy, experience shows that
the navy will be subdivided among them to an extent that
will paralyze its efficiency. I was amused, but at the same
time instructed as to popular understanding of war, by
the consternation aroused in Great Britain by one summer's
maneuvers, already alluded to, and the remedy proposed
in some papers. It appeared that several seaports were
open to bombardment and consequent exaction of subsidies
by a small squadron, and it was gravely urged that the
navy should be large enough to spare a small detachment
to each port Of what use is a navy, if it is to be thus
whittled away? But a popular outcry will drown the
voice of military experience.
The effects of popular apprehension upon military dis-
positions were singularly shown during our war with Spain,
Popular apprehension, voiced, it was understood, by mem-
bers of the national legislature, was the cause of dispositions
of the fleet which impoverished the needed blockade of the
enemy's ports, and which, in face of a more capable foe,
would have enabled the Spanish squadron to gain Cienfue-
gos, where it would have had the support of the main
Spanish army. This, with our very small regular army,
and the sickly season beginning, would have been a very
different proposition from that presented by the isolated
Santiago.
This line of thought requires development. Panic, un«
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 161
reasonable apprehension, when war begins, will be found in
the same persons who in peace resist reasonable preparation.
Unless my information at the time was incoriect, a senator
of the United States, who has earned much approval in
some quarters by persistent opposition to naval develop-
ment, was among the most clamorous for the assignment of
naval force to the local defense of his own State, which was
in no possible danger. In both cases the effect is the result
of unreason. ^^ It is better," said a British admiral of long
ago, ^ to be frightened now, while we have time to prepare,
than next summer, when the French fleet enters the Chan-
nel." The phrase is much more worthy of perpetuation
than his other often-quoted ^^ fleet in being."
Where a navy is relied upon for a pure defensive, the
demand will naturally follow for many small vessels, — a
gunboat policy, — for the simple reason that tonnage put
into large vessels cannot be subdivided. Our early single-
turreted monitors, being small and relatively cheap, could
be numerous. They therefore lent themselves readily to
the scheme of a pure defense, widely distributed; the
naval analogue of the now discredited cordon policy, in
which the protection of a land frontier was attempted by
distributing the available force among niunerous vulnerable
points instead of concentrating it in a central position.
Any belief that still exists in those monitors, as suited to a
general naval policy, will be found associated with the idea
of subdivision, one or two vessels to eveiy port I read,
now many years ago, precisely such a project, elaborated
for the defense of our Atlantic coast ; one, two, or three,
single-turreted monitors assigned to each, according to its
assumed importance ; and this by a trained naval officer.
Happily, the last twenty years has seen the conception of
a navy ** for defense only " yield to sounder military un-
derstanding of the purposes of a navy ; and that under-
standing, of the navy's proper office in offensive action^
152 NAVAL STRATEGY
results as certainly in batUeships as the defensive idea
does in small vessels.
Every proposal to use a navy as an instrument of pure
passive defense is found faulty upon particular examina-
tion; and these various results all proceed from the one
fundamental fact that the distinguishing feature of naval
force is mobility, while that of a passive defense is immo-
bility. The only exception known to me is where per^
manent — that is, immobile — works cannot be constructed
to command the surroundings, because of the extent and
depth of the water area to be defended. In illustration, I
would cite the suggested artificial island with fortification,
proposed for the entrance of the Chesapeake. It is con-
templated because the capes are too far apart fully to
command the entrance. Conditions being as they are, I
conceive that to employ coast-defense ships instead of the
artificial island would be a mistake ; while possibly, if the
water were forty fathoms deep, recourse to a floating de-
fense, elaborately protected against under-water work at-
tack, might be unavoidable, because there would be no
alternative measure possible.
Such an exception emphasizes the rule. The strictly
defensive strength of a seaport depends therefore upon
permanent works, the provision of which is not the busi-
ness of naval officers. The navy is interested in them be-
cause, when effective, they release it from any care about
the port ; from defensive action to the offensive, which is
its proper sphere.
There is another sense in which a navy is regarded as
defensive ; namely, that the existence of an adequate navy
protects from invasion by commanding the sea. That is
measurably and in very lai^e degree true, and is a strategic
function of great importance ; but this is a wholly different
question from that of the defensive strength of seaports,
of strategic points, with which we are now dealing. It
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 168
therefore will be poetponed, with a simple warning against
the opinion that because the navy thus defends there is no
need for local protection of the strategic ports; no need,
that is, for fortifications* This view affirms that a military
force can always, under all circumstances, dispense with
secure bases of operations ; in other words, that it can never
be evaded, nor know momentary mishap.
I have now put before you reasons for rejecting the
opinion that the navy is the proper instrument, generally
speaking, for coast defense in the narrow sense of the ex*
pression, which limits it to the defense of ports. The
reasons given may be summed up, and reduced to four
principles, as follows :
1. That for the same amount of offensive power, float-
ing batteries, or vessels of very little mobility, are less
strong defensively against naval attack than land works
are.
2. That by employing able-bodied seafaring men to de-
fend harbors you lock up offensive strength in an inferior,
that is, in a defensive, effort.
8. That it is injurious to the morale and skill of seamen
to keep them thus on the defensive and off the sea. This
has received abundant historical proof in the past.
4. That in giving up the offensive the navy gives up its
proper sphere, which is also the most effective.
II. Offensive strength.
The offensive strength of a seaport, considered independ-
ently of its strategic situation and of its natural and ac-
quired resources, consists in its capacity :
1. To assemble and hold a large military force, of both
ships of war and transports.
2. To launch such force safely and easily into the deep.
8. To follow it with a continued support until the cam-
paign is ended. In such support are always to be reckoned
facilities for docking, as the most important of all supports.
164 NAVAL STRATEGY
It may be nrged jasUy that this continued support de-
pends as much upon the strategic situation of the port and
upon its resources as upon its strength. To this, however,
must be replied that it was never meant that the division
between the different elements which together make up the
total value of a seaport was clear-cut and absolute. The
division into heads is simply a convenient way by which the
subject can be arranged and grasped more clearly. Some
necessary conditions will affect, more or less, all three,
strength, position, and resources, and will unavoidably
reappear under different heads.
1. Assembling. It will be seen that depth of entrance,
and the area of anchoring ground for large vessels, are
elements of offensive strength. Without depth the larg-
est ships of war could not get in and out, and without
great extent the requisite fleet could not be assembled.
Depth of water, however, may be a source of weakness
defensively, because allowing the entrance of the enemy's
heavy vessels. In a port of secondary importance, fitted
only to be a base for commerce destroying («. g. Wilming-
ton, N. C), there would be no gain of offensive strength,
but rather loss of defensive, by great depth at entrance.
Suitable ground on shore for the establishment of docks
and for storehouses, for the maintenance, repair, and sup-
ply of ships, is a necessaiy condition of offensive strength.
That this ground should be so situated as not to be open
to injury by the enemy is a condition of defensive strength,
and the same is to be said of the anchorage ground.
Healthy ground for the encampment or lodging of troops,
etc., may be properly included in the elements of military
strength, both offensive and defensive. A special instance
of opportunity to constitute this feature of camping ground
for an expedition was afforded when the site for the navy
yard in Puget Sound was acquired. The original commis-
sion recommended the acquisition of an extensive area for
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 155
that reason, among others ; but the recommendation was
not adopted.
2. Launching. To launch a force safely and easily into
the deep implies that when ready to start it can go out at
once and take up its order of battle in the presence of an
enemy, unmolested; favored in doing so either by the
hydrographio conditions outside allowing the necessary
maneuvering without interference, or by the protection of
the port covering the fleet with its defensive power. It is,
of course, perfectly conceivable and possible that a fleet
may by its own power insure its own freedom of maneuver;
but the time occupied in changing from one order to
another is always critical, and such maneuvers should be
performed out of the reach of the enemy. In order to
complete the offensive strength of the place, it should be
able with its own means to cover the fleet during such
change of formation ; beyond that, the offensive strength
of the port for this purpose cannot be expected to reach.
This case is analogous to that of an army passing through
a defile, — room must be secured beyond to deploy. If the
entrance be narrow, the fleet must get outside before being
able to maneuver. In this case, the conditions of offensive
and defensive strength again clash, for a narrow and tort-
uous entrance is most easy to defend. It may be interest-
ing to recall that at the time these lectures were written,
1887, a very large, perhaps even a predominant, naval
opinion held that the ram would play the most prominent
part in naval warfare. From this followed that fleets
would approach one another bows on, and that deployment
would mean the formation of a line abreast, bringing all
bows towards the enemy. It was such a deployment that
was primarily in my mind when the paragraph just read
was written. Experience and progress have restored to
the gun its supremacy ; and as a ship is many times longer
than it is wide, a greater amount of gun power can be de-
156 NAVAL STRATEGY
veloped along the side than across the beam. The small,
single-turret, monitor is the only exception to this. It
follows that deployment, from column heading toward the
enemy, means now a change of course, by which the broad-
sides of all the vessels are brought on to the same line,
with all the guns training towards the enemy.
If a fleet is able to steam out from port in line abreast,
a change of course all together, when nearing the enemy,
effects such deployment ; but the channels by which harbors
are left are usually too narrow for this. Ordinarily vessels
must go out in column, and form line by a graduated
movement. An outside enemy awaiting such issue would
seek to deploy across the exit of the channel, out of range
of the forts but within range of the exit, enabled thus to
concentrate fire upon the leaders of the column before the
vessels following can give ' support by deploying their
batteries.
Belts of submarine mines, laid by the one party or the
other, as was largely done by both the Japanese and
Russians, may affect the conditions constituted by nature.
Submarine mines may be said to introduce artificial hydro-
graphic conditions. The inside party would aim to keep
the enemy, by fear of mines, so far distant as to be out of
range of its point of deployment ; and the effect may be
intensified by an energetic use of torpedo vessels and sub-
marines. At Port Arthur, the Russian mines and the ap-
prehension of torpedo attack did fix the Japanese fleet to
the Elliott Islands, so that the Russians when they came
out had no trouble about deploying.
An outside fleet, on the other hand, would wish by a
like use of mines to prevent the issuing fleet from deploy-
ing until it had passed beyond support by the shore guns.
The Japanese did not attempt this; that is, one-third of
their battleship force having been lost early in the war, the
exigencies of their case led them to seek the safety of a
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 167
boom-proteoted anchorage, rather than expose their armored
ships to torpedo attack by remaining continuously close to
the port) in order to obtain the advantage of concentration
on the head of the enemy's column. Their mine fields,
by making the exit dangerous, enforced delay upon the
enemy's fleet, enabling themselves to come up before it
could escape ; but this strategic advantage was not accom-
panied with the tactical advantage of concentration upon
the leading enemies during the critical moment preceding
deployment
All these dispositions — boom anchorage, mine fields, con-
centration on enemy's leaders — are tacticaL My subject is
strategy. The excuse for the apparent digression is that
the strength of a naval base of operations is a strategic
consideration, affecting all the theater of war. Tactical
facilities and disabilities are elements of strength or weak-
ness, and as such a general consideration of them falls under
the lawful scope of strategy. Mine fields, as used in the
latest war, have introduced a new condition, affecting that
element of offensive strength in a naval base which has
been defined as the ability to launch a maritime force easily
and safely into the deep.
tant bearing upon a strategic question of the gravest ordei^ ;
namely, the proper position for an outside fleet charged
with the duty of checking the movements of a more or less
equal enemy within a port. Hawke and St. Vincent in
their day answered: Close to the port itself. Nelson,
more inclined to take risks, said: Far enough off to give
them a chance to come out ; to tempt them to do so, for
we want a battle. The difference was one of detail, for
both aimed at interception, though by different methods.
It may be mentioned in passing that Nelson paid for the
deliberate looseness of his lines by some periods of ago-
nizing suspense, touch with the enemy being lost
168 NAVAL STRATEGY
The strategic reply to this question is as sure as histor-
ical experience can make it. The intercepting fleet must
keep so near the harbor's mouth that the enemy cannot
get a start. A start may be retrieved, as Nelson did ; but
again it may not» and the risk should not be taken. Wire-
less can do much to retrieve; but wireless needs a sight
of the enemy to give it its message. The Japanese so-
lution at Port Arthur — that is, the stationing their
main fleet at the Elliott Islands — answered, because the
Russians displayed neither energy nor ingenuity. A chan-
nel cleared by night sweeping, adequate range lights, a
little '* D — n the torpedoes,'* and a dash by night might
have transferred the Russian fleet to Vladivostok, grant-
ing the Japanese at the islands. The difliculties were no
greater than have been overcome often before, and the
strategic situation would have been greatly modified. The
Japanese recognized clearly that it would have been to
them a distinct check. The tactical problem of getting the
Russian fleet out of Port Arthur, under the two supposi-
tions of the enemy at the Elliott Islands and before the
port itself, would afford a very interesting tactical study,
with profitable strategic conclusions.
If a port have two outlets at a great distance from each
other, the offensive power will be increased thereby, the
enemy being unable to be before both in adequate force.
New York is a conspicuous instance of such advantage.
If the two outlets, by the Sound and by the ocean, are
suitably fortified, an enemy cannot be near both without
dividing his fleet into two bodies out of mutual supporting
distance. A united hostile fleet cannot command both
channels until right before the city, where the channels
meet. The same advantage, to a much less degree, is
found at Port Orchard, Puget Sound, and had weight
with the commission which chose this point for the navy
yard. The port of Brest has the same, which with sailing
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 169
fleets gave a distinct advantage. Wireless telegraphy of
course fetcilitates the movement of the enemy to one en-
trance from the other, or from a central position ; but the
gain over former conditions is less than one would imagine.
Nelson, fifty miles from Cadiz, learned of the enemy's sail-
ing in two and a half hours by a chain of signal vessels.
His chance of intercepting the enemy was as good, perhaps
even better, than that of a steam fleet similarly situated,
dependent upon wireless. The speed of the escaping fleet
under steam would fully counterbalance, probably more
than counterbalance, the gain of the outsider by speedier
information. Over twenty-four hours were required for
the allied fleets to leave Cadiz before Tra&lgar.
In order that two outlets should confer fully the offensive
advantage claimed, it is necessary that they should be so far
apart that the enemy cannot concentrate before one, between
the time that the fleet within indicates its intention of com-
ing out and the time when it has formed its order of battle
outside. With steam, few ports are so favorably situated ;
the dependence of sailing-ships upon the direction and force
of the wind introduced a tactical and strategic element which
can now be disregarded. ^^ Keep all fast," once wrote Lord
St. Vincent, *• for we know that with a wind to the south-
ward of southeast by south no ship of the line can leave
Brest." The analogy of this to the delay in coming out
caused by an enemy's mine field is easily seen.
The third element in the offensive strength of a strategic
port has been stated as the capacity, after having covered
the exit of a maritime force, to follow it with continued
support throughout the intended operations.
Obviously, in any particular port, this capacity to sup-
port active operations will depend upon the scene and char-
acter of the operations. In the war between Japan and
Russia, the Japanese dockyards were the scene both of the
equipment and refreshment, restoration and repair, of the
160 NAVAL STRATEGY
ships. They thus followed them oontinuously ; stood at
their back. The Russian home ports despatched the ves-
sels, but had nothing to do in sustaining them on the
theater of war. A fleet equipped at San Francisco for
operations in the Far East would require support nearer
than that harbor. Portsmouth and Plymouth were the
great Channel y«rds of Great Britain a centuiy ago, as
they stni are ; but the two ablest English commanders,
Hawke and St. Vincent, would not allow their vessels to
seek either for support For supplies, for refreshment of
the crews by rest, for cleaning bottoms, for overhaul of mo-
tive power, they were sent to Torbay.
All this is simply to reaffirm that for seaports position
— situation — is the first in importance of the elements of
strategic value. This illustrates again Napoleon's sajring,
** War is a business of positions.*' In the War of Seces-
sion, the United States ships were equipped in the north-
em yards, but were sustained in the campaign by nearer
bases, — Port Royal, Key West, Pensacola. Tins is a fre-
quent condition; indeed, with the wide scope of naval
operations, the more usual. But it is better that the two
processes, original equipment and continuous support, be
combined behind the same defenses, where possible. Hav-
ing in view the increasing importance of the Gulf and
Caribbean, increasing because of the increasing imminence
of Pacific questions and the near completion of the Canal,
it will be pertinent to inquire closely as to whether the
northern navy yards adequately meet possible emergencies
of the character now under discussion.
To follow a fleet with support means principally two
things : (1) To maintain a stream of supplies out, and
(2) to afford swift restoration to vessels sent back for
that purpose.
"Supplies" is a comprehensive word. It embraces a
large number of articles which are continuously being ex-
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 161
pended, and which mast be renewed by means of storeships
periodicallj despatched. It applies also to maintaining the
condition of a fleet by a system of reliefe. This involves a
reserve, so that ships long out and worn are replaced by
fresh vessels, and, yet more important, by refreshed crews.
Of the capacity thos to refresh and thus to replace, numer-
ous diy docks are the most important single constituent,
because the most vital and the longest to prepare.
Historical instances, by their concrete force, are worth
reams of dissertation. The capacity of the Japanese dock-
yards may have been ample or may not, but by the Jap-
anese government it was felt to be of critical importance
that all their armored ships should be docked and restored
in the briefest time possible after the fall of Port Arthur.
To achieve this was a matter of great anxiety ; to be meas-
ured by Togo's signal, ^^The safety of the Empire depends
upon to-day's results." One of the factors in the results of
that day was that the dockyards which sent out the fleet
were able to dock all the vessels in the respite of time
gained by Russia's dilatoriness. Thus the Japanese fleet
was an assemblage of .veterans restored by repose and re-
pair. Clearly it would have been a better condition if the
yards throughout the war could have contained as a constant
rule two armored ships, docking and resting crews ; a re-
serve to relieve others, and also at critical moments to
augment the total strength of the fleet. It is not ideal
management to have to clean and repair an entire navy at
the same moment; but it was forced upon Japan by the
fewness of her armored ships, which required their constant
employment at the front Such a reserve of ships corre-
sponds to the margin of safety of the engineer.
It may occur to some that this capacity to sustain a fleet
in its operations falls more exactly under the head of Re-
sources, the last of the three heads under which the ele-
ments which affect strategic value of seaports have been
162 NAVAL STRATEGY
summarized. It is true that this capacity is one of re-
sources, yet it may be claimed that its worth is more evi-
dent when considered as an element of offensive strength.
If the capacity of dockyards be classed under resources,
less attention is attracted to the fact that upon that ca-
pacity may depend the offensive energy of a war.
Subdivision of a single subject cannot be into compart-
ments separate from one another. Subdivision is not an
end in itself. It is a means to exact thinking, and to think-
ing out a matter more thoroughly, because more systemati-
cally than would otherwise be done. Also, a comprehensive
summary under heads tends to insure that in a particular
decision or choice of a position no consideration will be
overlooked.
8. Besoubcss
The wants of a navy are so many and so varied that it
would be time lost to name them separately. The resources
which meet them may be usefully divided under two heads,
natural and artificial. The latter, again, may be conven-
iently and accurately subdivided into resources developed
by man in his peaceful occupation and use of a country,
and those which are immediately and solely created for the
maintenance of war.
Other things being equal, the most favorable condition
is that where great natural resources, joined to a good
position for trade, have drawn men to settle and develop
the neighboring country. Where the existing resources are
purely aiUficial and for war, the value of the port, in so
far, is inferior to that of one where the ordinary occupations
of the people supply the necessary resources. To use the
phraseology of our subject, a seaport that has good stra-
tegic situation and great military strength, but to which all
resources must be brought from a distance, is much infe-
rior to a similar port having a rich and developed friendly
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 163
region behind it Gibraltar and ports on small islands,
like Santa Lucia and Martinique, labor under this disad-
vantage, as compared with ports of England, France, the
United States; or even of a big island like Cuba, if the
latter be developed by an industrial and commercial people.
The mutual dependence of commerce and the navy is no-
where more clearly seen than in the naval resources of a
nation, the greatness of which depends upon peaceful trade
and shipping. Compared with a merely military navy, it
is the difference between a natural and a forced growth.
Among resources, diy docks occupy the place first in
importance: (1) because to provide them requires the
longest time ; (2) because they &cilitate various kinds of
repairs ; (8) because by the capacity to clean and repair
several vessels at once, and so restore them with the least
delay to the fleet, they maintain offensive energy.
Dry docks represent in condensed form the three require-
ments of a strategic seaport. In position they should be
as near the scene of war as possible. Strength is repre-
sented by numbers; the more numerous the docks, the
greater the offensive strength of the port. For resources,
the illustration is obvious ; docks are an immense resource.
In contemplating the selection of a navy-yard site, it is
evident that facility for excavating docks is a natural re-
source, while the subsequent construction is artificiaL
Evidently, also, a commercial port will supplement these
resources in an emergency by the docks it may maintain
for commerce, thus exemplifying what has been said as to
the wide basis offered by resources developed by man in
his peaceful occupation of a country.
CHAPTER VIII
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES
{CofUinued)
Stbatboio , Lutes
THE strategic points on a given theater of war
are not to be looked upon merely separately and
as disconnected. After determining their in-
dividual values by the test of position, militaiy
strength, and resources, it will remain to consider their
mutual relations of bearing, distance, and the best routes
from one to the other.
The lines joining strategic points are called by military
writers strategic lines. On land there may be several
lines, practicable roads, connecting the same two points;
any one of which may at different times have different
names, indicating the special use then being made of it,
as, line of operation, line of retreat, line of communications,
etc. At sea, other things being equal, the line that is
shortest, measured by the time required to pass over it, is
ordinarily the one to be chosen by a fleet ; but this obvious
remark, approaching a truism, is open to frequent modifi-
cation by particular circumstances.
Illustration is afforded by the very recent case of Roz-
hestvensky's fleet when leaving French Cochin China, or,
yet more critically, the Saddle Islands, for its final push
towards Vladivostok. In the first instance, there was the
question of passing between Formosa and the mainland,
the direct route, or going outside the island. The latter
was followed. In leaving the Saddles, the shortest route,
by the Sea of Japan, was the one chosen ; yet with all the
risks that would be involved in the greater delay occasioned
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 165
by going east of Japan, through Tsugaru Straits, it is evi-
dent that there were favoring chances, which needed careful
weighing. The position occupied by Admiral Togo was
judiciously chosen to facilitate intercepting in either case ;
but the fact that he passed through some thirty-six hours
of anxious suspense, because the Russians did not appear
nor tidings of them come in, shows the possibilities of the
situation. The very strength of his conviction that they
mttit come that way would be an element favoring the
Russians, had Rozhestvensky decided for the other. There
are temperaments which cannot readily abandon a convic-
tion, as there are others which cannot bear suspense*
Of the numerous lines which may be traced on the sur-
face of the globe joining two seaports, two general divis-
ions may be made, — those that cross the open sea, and those
that follow the coast-line. A glance at the chart of the
Oulf of Mexico will illustrate my meaning, showing the
two available routes to Key West from the mouth of the
Mississippi, or from Pensacola. To use the open sea, which
is generally the shortest, military command of the sea is
needed ; when this command is not held, vessels are forced
to follow their coast-line, usually by night, and to use such
harbors of refuge or other support as the coast with its
conformation wUl give. The flotilla with which the first
Napoleon intended to invade England illustrated this
method. The large number of vessels composing it ne-
cessitated building them in many different places. To
reach the point of assembly, Boulogne, they had to run the
gantlet of the British cruisers that controlled the English
ChanneL This was successfully done, though with a cer-
tain proportion of loss, by keeping closer to the coast than
the enemy could safely follow, while an elaborate scheme
of coastwise defense by stationary and flying batteries was
also provided for them. In the War of 1812, American
coasting trade, as far aa it survived, was driven to the
166 NAVAL STRATEGY
same evasion, but without the same support. The same
conditions prevailed in Nelson's time along the Riviera
of Nice and Oenoa. Whenever the open sea is controlled
by an enemy recourse will be had to this means, usually by
night; for, while land communication is ampler and surer
than formerly, it is not yet able to replace the coasting
trade. It is only necessary to consider the coal traffic by
sea from the Delaware to New York and the Eastern
States, to see that it cannot lightly be surrendered, or
replaced by railroad, without much suffering to the com-
munity and derangement of industries.
Neutral coasts may thus in some degree be made part of
the line of approach to belligerent ports, endangered by the
nearness of an enemy. For example, if war existed between
Germany and Great Britain, with the British navy con-
trolling the North Sea, German vessels having once reached
the coast of France or of Norway might proceed with safety
within the conventional three-mile limit.
The most important of strategic lines are those which
concern the commimications. Communications dominate
war. This has peculiar force on shore, because an army
is immediately dependent upon supplies frequently re-
newed. It can endure a brief interruption much less
readily than a fleet can, because ships carry the substance
of communications largely in their own bottoms. So long
as the fleet is able to face the enemy at sea, communications
mean essentially, not geographical lines, like the roads an
army has to follow, but those necessaries, supplies of which
the ships cannot carry in their own hulls beyond a limited
amount. These are, first, fuel ; second, ammunition ; last
of all, food. These necessaries, owing to the facility
of water transportation as compared with land, can
accompany the movements of a fleet in a way impossible
to the train of an army. An army train follows rather
than accompanies, by roads which may be difficult and
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 167
must be narrow; whereas maritime roads are easy, and
inimitably wide.
Neverdieless, all military organizations, land or sea, are
ultimately dependent upon open communications with the
basis of the national power ; and the line of communications
is doubly of value, because it usually represents also the
line of retreat. Retreat is the extreme expression of depend-
ence upon the home base. In the matter of communica-
tions, free supplies and open retreat are two essentials to
the %qfety of an army or of a fleet. Napoleon at Marengo in
1800, and again at Ulm in 1805, succeeded in placing him-
self upon the Austrian line of commimication and of re-
treat, in force sufficient to prevent supplies coming forward
from the base, or the army moving backward to the base.
At Marengo there was a battle, at Ulm none ; but at each
the results depended upon the same condition, — the line
of communication controlled by the enemy. In the War of
Secession the forts of the Mississippi were conquered as
soon as Farragut's fleet, by passing above, held their line
of communications. Mantua in 1796 was similarly con-
quered as soon as Napoleon had placed himself upon the
line of retreat of its garrison. It held out for six months,
very properly ; but the rest of the campaign was simply an
effort of the outside Austrians to drive the French off the
line, and thus to reinforce the garrison or to enable it to
retreat.
Rozhestvensky^s movement towards Vladivostok was
essentially a retreat upon his home base. The Japanese
were upon the line of communication and retreat in force
sufficient to defeat him, as Napoleon at Marengo did the
Austrians. I think that Cervera was headed into Santi-
ago by the belief or the fear that before Cienfuegos, there-
fore upon the line of his retreat thither, he would meet a
force against which he could not hope for success in the
condition of his fleet. That the case was not as he sup.
168 NAVAL STRATEGY
posed it to be remains a reflection upon the management of
the United States navy, the reasons for which reach &r
behind the naval authorities. The Spanish Minister of
Marine stated in the Cortes that Cervera went to Santiago
because there was no other place to which he could go.
Sampson had been heard of at Porto Rico. The instance
illustrates the advantage of two ports on the same frontier,
— in this instance the south shore of Cuba, — as well as
the effect produced by a hostile force upon the line of
communications.
Santiago and Cienfuegos illustrate the advantage of two
ports of retreat, as Rozhestvensky experienced the disad-
vantage of only ona For a fleet acting offensively from a
given coast as a base, two ports on that coast also facilitate
communications in two principal ways : 1, the raiders of
the enemy cannot concentrate on one line, but must divide
on two, which halves the danger from them ; 2, two ports
are less liable to be congested than one is. The question
is very much the same as the supply of a division of guns
on board ship; how many guns can one chain of supply
serve ? Napoleon enunciated the following definition : The
Art of War consists in dissemination of force in order to
subsist, with due regard to concentration in order to fight.
To provide two or more ports of supply is to disseminate
the means of subsistence without impairing the concentra-
tion of the fleet.
Santiago and Cienfuegos — to which may be added
Havana, as on a coast line strictly continuous and having
land communication with the other two — may be cited as
illustrating that a coast line with several suitable ports is
essentially one long base of operations, interconnected. By
the means at its disposal, torpedo vessels and cruisers, it
will be able more or less to keep the immediate neighbor-
hood of the shores free from molestation by an enemy's
cruisers. Such a coast-line is therefore a strategic line,
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 169
embracing several strategic points. It will happen more
often than not that several points on the sea frontier near-
est the theater of war must be occupied by a state, for
strategic reasons. When great efforts have to be made, it
will be necessary to carry on the preparations at more than
one point. In Napoleon^s Egyptian expedition in 1798,
France had on the Mediterranean coast only one naval
port properly so called, — Toulon; but detachments were
prepared in several other ports under French control, and
joined subsequently to the sailing of the main fleet. Other
reasons may impose a similar distribution of activity.
Moreover, it is hazardous to depend exclusively on one
arsenal for the supply or repairs of a navy, for a successful
blockade or attack might paralyze all operations depending
upon it, and the retreat of a beaten fleet upon a single
point is more easily intercepted. It is difficult to imagine
a more embarrassing position than that of a fleet, after a
decisive defeat, hampered with crippled ships, having but
a single port to which to return. It may be laid down aa
an essential principle that on every sea frontier there should
be at least two secure ports, sufficientiy fortified, and cap-
able of making any and all repairs. In such cases pursuit
may be baffled, if the enemy can be dropped out of sight;
but with one port he knows to which you are bound.
Togo, for instance, knew that Rozhestvensky . must be
bound to Vladivostok, although he did not know whether
he would go through the Strait of Korea or that of
Tsugaru.^ If the two ports are tolerably near each other
so much the better, as the enemy cannot then judge the
aim of the retreating fleet by slight indications.
Chesapeake Bay and New York on our Atlantic coast are
two ports clearly indicated by nature as primary bases of sup-
ply, and consequentiy for arsenals of chief importance. For
these reasons, they are also the proper ports of retreat in
1 See map facing page 426.
170 l^AVAL STRATEGY
case of a bad def eat| because of the resources that should
be accumulated in them; and both for supplies and as
refuges they should be adequately fortified on the land
side as well as the sea. Other ports on the same coast,
Boston, Philadelphia, Charleston, and others, may serve
for momentary utility, disseminating provision and prepara-
tion ; but the protection given them as commercial ports
will suffice for the inferior use made of them for supplying
the fleet. Economy of means and of money forbid the
multiplication of maritime fortresses beyond the strictly
necessary ; and it seems probable that the pronouncement
of the Archduke Charles, that one first^slass and one second-
class fortress is sufficient for a land frontier, is true still of
maritime fortresses. How it may be for land is beyond
my province to say. It can be seen that New York by its
natural advantages lends itself profitably to a development
greater than Norfolk ; because of its two entrances, and be-
cause Narrag^nsett Bay could be embraced in the general
scheme of defense for New York. This would provide
practically three entrances or exits for a fleet.
Vladivostok and Port Arthur illustrate the same propo-
sitions, though the situation was for them immensely com-
plicated by the intervention of the Korean peninsula.
They were thus related to one another, as to situation,
rather as are the ports of our Atlantic and Gulf coasts,
with the Florida peninsula intervening; or, even more
emphatically, as San Francisco is to Norfolk. In this last
case the scale is greater, as it is also in the Russian
separation between the Baltic and their Far Eastern ports ;
but the result is similar. Water communication between
the ports is made more difficult by the projection of land,
which not only increases the distance between them but
affords an obvious strategic position — near the point of
Korea, or near the point of Florida, or, in the case of the
Atlantic and Pacific, near the Canal — at which a hostile
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 171
fleet can wait in concentrated force, sure that escapeis
most come near them. This has been the case in all littoral
warfare ; capes are the points of danger just as salients are
recognized to be. This is the precise opposite of the bene-
ficial effect exerted by Long Island upon New York. The
coast of the mainland there is a re-«ntrant angle, covered
by the island as if by an earthwork. This enables the de-
fense to concentrate before going out and embarrasses the
enemy by the uncertainties of two exits.
On the same sea frontier all the fortified ports will form
parts of the base of operations, which itself may be properly
called a strategic line. Provision should be made for safe
and rapid communication between the ports; for while
dissemination may be necessary to rapid preparation, con-
centration is essential to vigorous execution.
In conformity with this statement, of the need to provide
for safe and rapid communication between the ports of a
maritime frontier, in order to concentrate the forces when
the moment for action arrives, we find mentioned among
the needs of a base of operations ashore that of free move-
ment and transport of troops and supplies behind the actual
front The river Rhine affords an illustration. In case,
as has happened more than once, that the French intended
to invade Germany, their army would be on the west side,
and they might or might not hold bridges. Whatever
the state of the case, they would be able to move their
troops, dispersed in cantonments, behind the Rhine, and
concentrate them where they preferred, unseen and un-
known to the enemy except through spies or treachery.
Recoimoissance in force would be difficult, or impracticable.
In such movements the river Rhine was called expressively
a curtain — it concealed as a curtain does. Long Island
Sound will afford similar advantages for the operations of
a fleet, if the eastern end be fortified. As has already been
suggested, Narragansett Bay could be included in the
172 NAVAL STRATEGY
scheme of a fortified base, the central natural feature of
which is Long Island.
As a rule, however, this condition cannot be realized for
the ships of a fleet. Their movement from port to port
must, ordinarily, be made outside, that is, in front of the
base ; either directly or by following the coast-line, accord-
ing to the degree of control possessed over the sea. The
internal navigation behind the sea islands of the Southern
States does indeed suggest an ideal frontier, in which ships
of the heaviest draft could move behind the base from one
port to another, as between the two entrances of one port,
sheltered from attack by intervening land ; but it is only
an ideal Such internal navigation, however, might be used
effectually to keep clear a necessary belt of sea outside, by
the facilities which it offers for the concentration and sortie
of light vessels — of which the torpedo boat or submarine
is the most probable — in such numbers as would make the
enemy cautious about near approach. The precaution ob-
served by the Japanese to remove their battleships from
under-water attack, by holding them at a distance, en-
forced as it was by two severe disasters, is warrant for
believing that torpedo warfare can be so utilized as to
assure, in a military sense, the passage of single ships or
small divisions from port to port of a threatened coast.
The dispositions of the American fleet before Santiago in
1898 are not likely to be repeated.
A like facility for the operation of torpedo vessels would
be given by shoals lying along a coast ; either by the intri-
cacy of the channels through them, or from their being
everywhere impassable for heavy ships. The chain of
islands bounding Mississippi Sound, continued by Chande-
leur Islands and shoals, establishes a continuous system of
navigation for small torpedo boats fmm the Passes to
Mobile. Portions of the Cuban coast present similar
features. If the Mississippi and Mobile were two points
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 178
of the American base of operations on the Golf, the coast-
line joining them could become a fairly secure strategic
line of communication — by keeping numerous torpedo
vessels moving there — in case the enemy^s control of the
se^ forbade attempting a straight course. East of Mobile
this broken ground ceases; but it is probable that the
nearness of Mobile to Pensacola would enable the same
character of defense to be extended as far as Pensacola.
A coast-line being regarded as a unit, a strategic Une,
having two or more important strategic points, it is clearly
possible that the fleet for various reasons may not always
be concentrated. Recent instances are usually most prof-
itable to consider. The fleet may be divided by original
mistake, as the Russians were divided between Port Arthur
and Vladivostok. It may be divided by exigencies of
preparation^ of repair, as for docking, or by accidents of
war. A disabled ship must get in where it can. After the
engagement of August 10 the Russians so divided. Most
returned to Port Arthur; one battleship went to Kiao
Chau. After the Battle of the Japan Sea dispersal in sev-
eral directions took place. The common result of a great
victory is such separation of the beaten vessels, just as on
land a really great victory is followed by a disintegration,
which it is the duty of the victor to increase by the im-
mediate vigor of his pursuit, disorganizing still further the
shattered army. The recurrence of such conditions of
separation is a permanent feature of warfare, of which
strategy and tactics have to take account in all ages. The
methods of successive eras will differ with the character of
the instruments each has. Sail and steam possess very
differing potencies; but the factors in the hands of the
opposing parties are, or should be, the same in any partic-
ular age. Sails are not opposed to steam, for they do not
co-exist. Sails meet sails only, and steam, steam.
The problem of imiting a divided fleet, or of getting a
174 NAVAL STRATEGY
separated ship safely to her main body may therefore be ex-
pected to recur; consequently the provision of methods to
that end, by using the means of the day, is not of barren
academic interest Nor does the fact that the operation is
very difficult, results doubtful, remove the consideration
as impracticable. The veiy improbabiUty of aa effort has
often been the cause of its success. In the case of a
single armored ship, or of a small division, having to run
for it in order to effect a junction with the main fleet in
another port, the torpedo force could be assembled in such
numbers as might be necessary to accompany the passage,
which would commonly be made by night; for obscurity is
a curtain that favors the weaker. Local familiarity, too,
is a much stronger factor than the local knowledge given
by charts, especially in the dark. This, and the choice of
time, — all the elements, in short, — favor the local navy in
such measures. This, however, is not to say that they in-
volve no risk. War cannot be made without running risks.
As for the torpedo force employed, all history, including
the war between Japan and Russia, affirms the ease with
which small vessels can proceed along their own coast,
defiant in general of the outsider's efforts, though some-
times caught.
Off-lying obstacles to navigation are of strategic impor-
tance and may be looked upon as outworks: generally,
however, coming under the head of defensive value. They
rather keep off the enemy than facilitate offense. They
played a conspicuous part off the coast of Holland in the
old English-Dutch wars ; but as the size of ships increased,
the advantage for defense was more than compensated by
the loss of offensive power, the Dutch ships of war remain-
ing smaller and less weatherly than the French and Eng-
lish, owing to the shallower water in which they had to
move at home. Consequently, the Dutch line of battle was
weaker at any one point than the enemy's force brought
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 175.
against it. The strategic value of the shoals, therefore,
introduced an element of tactical weakness in the Dutch
nayy.
So far, the strategic points of a theater of sea war have
been considered only with reference to that particular the-
ater, — to their importance intrinsically, and to their rela-
tions to one another and to the fleet. The treatment of
the subject would not be complete without a reference to
the distance separating colonial possessions or outlying
interests from a mother country, and to the effect of that
distance upon their value to the holder. This is a branch of
the subject which particularly concerns naval war as com-
pared with that on land. The great military nations of
the world being found almost wholly on the continent
of Europe, with well-established frontiers, the distance of
any point defended by them, or against which they move
offensively in continental wars, is not very great, at least at
first. There is also nothing on the Continent that corre-
sponds to the common ground which all peoples find in the
sea, when that forms one of their frontiers. As soon as a na^
tion in arms crosses its land frontier it finds itself in the terri-
tory of a neutral or of the enemy. If a neutral, it cannot
go on without the neutral's consent ; if an enemy, advance
must be gradual and measured, unless &vored by over-
whelming force or great immediate success. If the final
objective is very distant, there will be one or more inter-
mediate objectives, which must be taken and held as suc-
cessive steps to the end in view; and such intermediate
objectives will commonly represent just so many obstacles
which will be seriously disputed by the defendant.
To push on regardless of such obstacles, and of the threat
they hold out against the communications and lines of re-
treat, requires accurate knowledge of the enemy's condition
and sound judgment as to the power of your own army to
cover the distance to your distant objective, and to over*
176 NAVAL STRATEGY
come its resistance, before the enemy can bring his own
resources into play. This amounts to saying that the enemy
is known to be much inferior in strength for the time being,
and that you have good hope of striking him to the heart be-
fore he is ready to use his limbs and weapons. Thus struck
at the very center of his strength, with the sinews of his
military organization cut, the key of his internal communi-
cations perhaps seized, and concerted action thus hindered,
the enemy may, by such a bold and well-timed move-
ment, be brought to submit This is the aim of modem
war, and explains the great importance attached to rapid
mobilization.
In naval operations such successes are wrought less by
the tenure of a position than by the defeat of the enemy's
organized force — his battle fleet The same result will
follow, though less conclusive and less permanent, if the
fleet is reduced to inactivity by the immediate presence of
a superior force ; but decisive defeat, suitably followed up,
alone assures a situation. As has been remarked before,
the value of any position, sea or land, though very real,
depends upon the use made of it ; that is, upon the armed
forces which hold it, for defense and offense. The sea is
not without positions advantageous to hold ; but peculiarly
to it, above the land, is applicable the assertion that the
organized force is the determining feature. The fleet, it
may be said, is itself the position. A crushing defeat of
the fleet, or its decisive inferiority when the enemy appears,
means a dislocation at once of the whole system of colo-
nial or other dependencies, quite irrespective of the
position where the defeat occurs. Such a defeat of the
British navy by the German in the North Sea would lay
open all English colonies to attack, and render both them
and the mother country unable to combine effort in mutual
support. The fall of any coast position in the Empire
would become then a question only of time and of the
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 177
enemy's exertions, unless the British navy should be re-
stored. Until then, there is no relieving force, no army in
the field. Each separate position is left to its own resources,
and when they are exhausted must succumb, as did Port
Arthur ; and as Gibraltar would have done in 1780 but for
the navy of Great Britain, which was its army in the field.
On the other hand, so long as the British fleet can maintain
and assert superiority in the North Sea and around the
British Islands, the entire Imperial system stands secure.
The key of the whole is held, is within the hulls of the
ships.
This is not to say that a powerful, although inferior,
navy may not by successful evasion and subsequent sur-
prise seize positions, one or more, in a distant part of the
world, and there, so to say, enti'ench itself, to the discom-
fiture of the opponent and possibly to the attainment of
some distinct ultimate national advantage. The importance
yet attached to local bases of operations in remote regions,
as for instance by Germany to Kiao Chau in years still
recent, might prompt such an attempt. The question then
would arise whether the superior naval state would be
willing to endure the protracted contest necessary to expel
the intruder. General Grant in the spring of 1868 feared
that the people of the United States would be discouraged
to the point of ceasing the war, if from his operations
around Vicksburg he fell back upon Memphis, to take up
a new line of advance, which was the course Grenertd
Sherman urgently advised. This is one of the problems of
war, the calculation of chances. Napoleon once said that
the art of war consists in getting the most of the chances
in your own favor. The superior fleet holds the strongest
suit, but the strongest suit does not always win. The
character and the skill of the player against you are impor-
tant factors. For such reasons, the study of the chances,
both in general elements of war and in the concrete cases
178 NAVAL STRATEGY
of specific regions, is necessaiy ; in order to fit an officer to
consider broadly and to determine rapidly in particular
contingencies which may arise.
Readiness and promptitude in action will of course give
great advantages in such attempts, as they do in other
military operations ; and for the matter of that in all affairs
of life. There is, however, a recognizable difference be-
tween the power of a great state either to attack or to
defend a distant and isolated dependency, however strong,
from which it is separated by hundreds or thousands of
miles of sea, and the power of the same state to support a
similar post in its interior or on its own frontier, whether
sea or land. The defense of Gibraltar, for instance, would
be easier to Great Britain if it were on the British coast.
Quebec fell in the Seven Years' War, but during the same
period no such mishap occurred to French home fortresses.
Rochefort, it is true, might have fallen in 1757 if greater
promptitude and enterprise had been shown by the British ;
but the result would have been of the nature of a success-
ful raid, achieved by surprise, not a permanent tenure
consequent upon prolonged operations, as in the case of
Quebec.
Other things being equal, the greater the distance the
greater the difiQculty of defense and of attack ; and where
there are many such points, the difficulty of defense in-
creases in proportion to their distance, number, and dis-
semination. The situation of a nation thus encumbered,
however unavoidably, is the reverse of that concentration,
and maintenance of close communication, which are essen-
tial conditions of correct dispositions for war. As was said
to Rodney in 1780 by the head of the British Admiralty, the
navy cannot be in force everywhere. Some points must
be left without the immediate presence of the fleet; and
in such circumstances an enemy who has his ships well
in hand may by prompt action seize one and so establish
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 179
himself that he cannot be dislodged. Minorca was thus
snatched from Great Britain in 1756, the fleet under Byng
failing to dislodge the enemy's fleet before the garrison
surrendered; and the French held the island during the
remaining seven years of war, although the British navy
continued superior. The place, however, could have been
recovered by arms, if Great Britain had thought worth
while after her fleet had regained full freedom of move-
ment, which it did before the war was over. The end was
attained equally surely and much more cheaply by the
capture of Belle Isle off the French Atlantic coast, in
exchange for which Minorca was returned at the peace.
Malta was seized in like manner by Bonaparte in 1798 ; and,
though France had no navy in the Mediterranean, both it
and Egypt were held for over two years, when the French
were ousted by the British only after prodigious exertions.
The weakness and inconsistency thus brought upon a
nation as a whole by the tenure of remote maritime regions
or stations must be felt, of course, in due proportion by
each of the outlying possessions ; which will, by so much,
be less secure than equivalent possessions held by a nation
whose outposts are nearer to it or less scattered. As com-
pared to the latter, the former is forced to a defensive war
at sea, because it has more to lose, the other more to gain ;
and in accepting the defensive it loses the advantages of
the initiative, which are the property of offensive war.
This chiefly constitutes the military problem of Imperial
Federation, which for several years has been agitating the
British Empire. Australia, New Zealand, South Africa,
and Canada are self-governing dependencies of the United
Kingdom. Each feels that, like Minorca and Malta in
their day, it cannot itself alone cope at sea with several
possible enemies of Great Britain. Formal independence,
as an alternative to the existing self-government, would
leave each to its own unaided resources against any one of
180 NAVAL STRATEQr
those enemies; and while it is probable that entire sub*
jagation, that is, conquest and permanent tenure, would be
too onerous to attempt, the cession of a particular harbor
or district might be exacted, or other commercial or naval
advantages,, as the price of peace.
Great Britain and France did not besiege Sebastopol
because they desired to acquire the place. They attacked
there because they thus put Russia at the utmost disadvan-
tage in the matter of communications as compared with
themselves, forcing her to defend a maritime fortress at a
point distant from the center of national power; as remote
then, perhaps, as the recent war in Manchuria has been
under the changed circumstances. Having won the victory,
they gave back the place, but exacted in return conditions
of a different character. The United States did not invade
Cuba to acquire the island, but to force Spain to yield
conditions not otherwise obtainable. Should the United
States have trouble with Japan, and the United States
navy be beaten, it is improbable that Japan would seek
to annex any part of the American Pacific coast ; but she
might demand Hawaii, or free immigration of her laborers
here, or both. Hong Kong, Eliao Chau, Port Arthur,
Formosa, are instances of similar exactions ; and the United
States' tenure of Guantanamo Bay, though not similarly
invidious, illustrates naval strategy availing itself of circum-
stances in order to obtain advantages of position. The Brit-
ish colonies are thus exposed to be attacked, to the harass-
ment of war, in order to obtain concessions of one kind or
another. Under several possible contingencies an enemy's
division not only may reach their shores before a British
pursuit, but the British may feel it not wholly expedient to
pursue, lest the detachment so weaken the home fleet as to
render doubtful the security of the British Islands them-
selves. This is a question of comparative numbers and
margin of safety.
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 181
Such was the position of Great Britain daring the War
of American Independence and through the earlier part of
the wars of the first French Republic and Empire, and is
now. Although other nations, notaUy France, have very
greatly increased the extent and dispersion of their colonial
empire as compared with former times, and thereby have
multiplied the points at which they are open to attack, their
holdings generally have not the economic development, and
few of them the commercial value or the national an^
military importance that attaches to several of the Brit-
ish dominions, colonies, and stations. The very multi-
tude and ubiquity of British maritime possessions, what-
ever the advantages they have brought with them, hitherto
and now, in tiie way of advancing trade or providing bases for
warlike action, were and are a source of danger, of distrac-
tion to the defense, and of consequent weakness. There can
be no certainty when or where a blow may &11. A French
naval officer, speaking of Great Britain's immense naval
development alongside of the widespread disposition of her
attackable points, has truly said, *^ England, in the midst of
riches, felt all the embarrassment of poverty." The brilliant
victories of the Nelsonic period, — the Nile, St. Vincent,
Trafalgar, — the overwhelming destruction dealt to the
enemies' navies, have obscured the fact that the war, what-
ever its motive on the part of England, was defensive m
its military character, and that to France, despite her mar-
itime weakness, belonged the advantages of the offensive.
The British fleets off the French coast stood in the first
line of the defense; waiting, longing, it is true, for the
opportunity to fight, because in battie they knew was the
best chance of destroying the fleets which threatened either
their home or their colonies. But still, in attacking, they
but defended the country's interests on and across the
sea. Their success, however, by the protection afforded
to the entire Empire, emphasizes the fact that the suprem-
182 NAVAL STRATEGY
acy of the fleet was in itself the tenure of the decisive
position.
Lord Kitchener, in his visit to Australia and New Zealand
in 1910, is quoted as writing in a memorandum to the local
governments,
** It is an axiom held by the British Oovemment that the
Empire's existence depends primarily upon the maintenance
of adequate and efficient naval forces. As long as this con-
dition is fulfilled, and as long as British superiority at sea
is assured, then it is an accepted principle that no British
Dominion can be successfully ana permanently conquered
by an organized invasion from oversea.'^
But in applying this principle to Australasia, he re-
marked that considerations of time and space cannot be
disregarded. He showed that concentration of force in one
or other theater may be compulsory for the navy ; that in
other seas (than that of the concentration) British naval
forces may remain temporarily inferior to those of an enemy,
and that some time may elapse before the command of these
other seas can be assured. He considered it therefore the
duty of all self-governing dominions to provide a military
force adequate to deal prompUy with an attempt at in-
vasion, and thus to insure local safety and public confi-
dence.^ The whole argument applies with equal force to
a community of self-governing States like the American
Union, wherein the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, not to
speak of outlying responsibilities, are separated by distances
quite as determinative as that between Great Britain and
Australasia.
It will be observed that the successful British strategy of
former days consisted in stationing competent divisions of
the fleet before the enemy's dockyards. Thus Antwerp,
Brest, Rochefort, Toulon, with the intervening Spanish
> The MaU (Tri-weeklj Tlmei), April 18, 1910.
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 188
ports when there was war with Spain, indicated a strategic
line of operations occupied by the British navy with twofold
effect. The occupation prevented the juncture of the ene-
my's divisions from the several ports; thus stopping concen-
tration, the great factor of effect in war. This result was
defensive, and for the whole of the then existing British
Empire ; the colonies as well as the United Kingdom. Of-
fensively, these main positions covered and supported a
blockade of the whole hostile coast. I recall to you these
well-understood conditions, in order to draw attention to
the fact that, now that Germany has taken the place of
France and Spain as the dangerous naval power, exactly
the same conditions are found to recur. The British
fleet is concentrated in the North Sea. There it defends
all British interests, the British Islands, British commerce,
and the colonies; and, offensively, commands Germany's
commercial sea routes.
If we take a particular very striking instance of sudden
seizure of an important position, Bonaparte's Egyptian ex-
pedition, which may fitly stand as a type of numerous
others directed against England or her colonies, it is seen
at once that France is on the offensive, England on the
defensive, notwithstanding the brilliant attack and com-
plete victory won at the Nile ; the most complete, probably,
in the annals of naval war. Bonaparte's phrase to his
army, '* Soldiers, you are one of the wings of the army of
England," — that is, of the army meant ultimately to in-
vade and reduce England, — was pregnant with truth ; nor
is there good reason to doubt the reality of his intentions
directed against India, or that there were fair military
chances of success.
In perfect keeping with his bold system of making war,
he had marked the decisive point and pushed directly for it
at a moment when there was a strong probability that the
lenemy would not be ready to stop him before he had reached
184 NAVAL STRATEGY
and seized his object. At the time he sailed, the British
had only three ships-of-the-Une in the Mediterranean. The
reason of this bareness of British force was that f'rance did
not stand alone, but had been joined by Spain. The su-
periority in numbers of the combined navies, localized in
the Mediterranean, had compelled the British fleet to with-
draw and concentrate in the Atlantic ; producing a situation
similar for the moment to that indicated by Lord Kitchener,
and followed ultimately by the results predicted in his mem*
orandum, when the British fleet, having established control
in the Atlantic, returned to the Mediterranean. The con-
dition would be reproduced if Austria now should enter
into an offensive alliance with Germany when in war with
Great Britain. I mention this because people are prone to
think that with steam and wireless and all modem inven-
tions the past cannot recur in essential features ; all of us
concede that it cannot recur in details. From 1798 to 1795
Spain was in alliance with Great Britain; from 1796 to
1800 she was her enemy. Austria is not now the enemy
chiefly feared by Gi'eat Britain ; but it will be to Austria's
interest to see Great Britain out of the Mediterranean, for
Austria has great inducements to acquisition within it
Austria and Germany cannot be said to have common
objects; but they have a common interest in supporting
one another, and their particular objects will be best
f ui*thered by cooperating with each other in world politics.
The geographical position of Egypt has given it always
unique strategic value, and its political condition in 1798
made a successful seizure in every way probable. Situated
at the crossing of many roads, — by land and sea, — open-
ing to Europe by the Mediterranean, and to the Indian
Ocean by the Red Sea, a moment's thought will show that
Egypt holds to the East and West a position like that
which the defile of the Danube held to the battle-ground
between Austria and France, or the Valtelline passes to the
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 186
Spanish communications through Germany to the Nether-
lands in the seventeenth century; in a word, that upon
political control of Egypt might well depend the control of
the East by a nation of western Europe. To strike at
India itself was not at once possible ; but it was possible to
seize, in Egypt, one of those intermediate objectives before
alluded to, and there wait until so securely established as
to be able to push on further. As the Archduke advanc-
ing from Bohemia would secure first the valley of the
Danube and then move on to the Rhine, so, advancing
against India, France would first seize Egypt and then
advance towards the East. Between Egypt and France
there was then another important point, another interme-
diate objective, Malta ; to take which Bonaparte paused on
his way, notwithstanding the need for haste. The final
fidlure of the expedition must not be allowed to obscure
the fact that France was attacking Great Britain, that the
latter was doubtful of the object of the expedition and dis-
tracted by the numerous points she had to cover, and that
French control was successfully established and maintained
for a measurable time in the two most important points,
Egypt and Malta.
It may be mentioned here that, although in so narrow a
sea as the Mediterranean, the greatest perplexity is shown
in the correspondence of Lord St. Vincent, the British
commander-in-chief, and of Nelson, as well as of the Ad-
miralty, as to the aim of the expedition. Naples or Sicily
was thought most probable ; and in one of his letters Nel-
son says, ^^ Malta is in the direct road to Sicily, '' explain-
ing that it would be most useful as an intermediate base.
So far, this attempt against India, Great Briton's great-
est and most distant dependency, had succeeded. Here,
however, the difficulty of the French enterprise began. It
proved feasible to advance to and accomplish the end in
view, if once clear of the harbor and the enemy; but when
186 NAVAL STRATEGY
this had been done no fatal injury had yet been dealt the
British, and the French, as towards Great Britain, were
forced from the offensive to the defensive. Their conquest
must be secured, and its communications with home estab-
lished, if it was to be effective for further progress. Bonar
parte's plan had been sagaciously drawn on the lines of a
militaiy operation; it broke down at the point wherein
its conditions differed from those of land warfare. Bona-
parte, to quote a French author, never attained ^^ le senti-
ment exact des difficult&s maritimes.'^ The army had
advanced into the enemy's country ; it had seized its first
objective ; but the blow was not fatal, and its own commu-
nications were in deadly danger. There was no reliev-
ing force to throw in supplies and reinforcements, as to
Gibraltar twenty years before, because the hostile navy con-
trolled the intervening country — the sea. By a combina-
tion of genius and good fortune, France had projected its
military power to a great distance across the sea and had
seized two distant and defenseless stations on a great high-
way. Could she keep them? We know she did not;
the probabilities are she could not ; yet she did hold them
so long as to justify the attempt made. Once in Egypt
and Malta, the French force passed from the offensive to
the defensive. The troops in these two outposts became
garrisons with no army in the field. The communications
between them and with home were closed; and however
long the occupation might endure, it was fruitless, except
as a diversion to the enemy's forces, unless the enemy
wearied of the strife, which at one time already Great
Britain had done. Although the unlucky result was has-
tened and plainly foreshadowed by the Battle of the Nile,
it probably was in any case inevitable, in the respective
conditions of the two navies, which Bonaparte failed to
realize. The whole undertaking from beginning to end
illustrates Lord Kitchener's comment on present-day con-
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 187
ditions. There is the enforced absence of the British navy
due to contemporary military and naval conditions, occa-
sioned by the events of the war in the years immediately
preceding, and there is the disastrous ultimate result as
soon as tiie superior navy recovered its freedom of action.
There is also an instructive analogy of outline between
Bonaparte's Egyptian expedition and his celebrated land
campaigpi in Italy, 1796, two years earlier. In 1796 he
advanced with similar celerity from the Riviera of Genoa,
one hundred and twenty miles, to the line of the river
Adig^ which, with its controlling fortress Verona, he
reached and had secured within two months. From several
conditions, mainly topographical but not necessary here to
enumerate, the Adige with its bridgehead Verona consti-
tuted a strategic center, intermediate between the Riviera
of Genoa whence Bonaparte started, and Vienna which
was his ultimate objective. It thus bore to the campaign
the relation which Malta bore to Egypt; but the natural
advantages of the position were qualified by the artificial
condition constituted by the fortress Mantua, west — that
is, in rear — of the Adige, which was occupied by a very
large Austrian garrison. While this held out, Bonaparte's
tenure of the Adige region was incomplete and insecure.
Hence his progress was arrested, as at Malta, by the ne-
cessity of mastering Mantua, which flanked his line of
advance into Austria, just as Malta flanked the line to
Egypt. Mantua detained him eight months, but he
maintained a controlling army in the field, as Great Britain
at the later period had the controlling navy in the Medi-
terranean; the mobile force in each case ensuring the
communications. When Mantua fell he resimied his
march, as he resumed his voyage after Malta; but the
success he afterwards achieved, momentous as it was,
he himself attributed in part to the fact that Austria
weakened, which Great Britain did not do as to Egypt,
188 NAVAL STRATEGY
although some of the British representatives did. *^ Had
the Austrians instead of making overtures for peace con-
tinued to retreat/' Bonaparte said, ^ they might have worn
down my force/' That is just what happened in Egypt
and in Malta. The French force in them was worn down.
Since these lectures were written the war between Japan
and Russia has afforded a similar instance. Port Arthur
was the Malta of Russia and the Mantua of Japan. Rus-
sia in the strategy of peace had projected her national
power to Port Arthur, far distant from the center of her
strength, and there established herself. When war came
she was unable to sustain the communications, by either
land or sea, as the French in Malta. The place therefore
ultimately fell ; but the menace of the fleet within to the
communications between Japan and Manchuria necessitated
the reduction of the fortress, to effect which there had to
be a very large detachment from the force available against
the main Russian army in the north. From the beginning
of the war the Japanese advanced rapidly till they reached
Liao Yang, but there they were held for six months, mainly
by the siege of Port Arthur, advancing but thirty-five miles.
After the fall of the fortress they made preparations to
resume their advance, as Bonaparte after Mantua; but
the Russians intended to retire, and were collecting their
strength as they fell back upon their base. At this con-
juncture mediation took place. The difficulty before the
Japanese was the same as before Bonaparte when he was
advancing towards Vienna; and though they did not sus-
tain the bluff which he did, they acted as he counselled
the Directory, "Don't overreach yourselves by grasping
at more than the conditions warrant"
The failure of France to maintain her hold in Egypt and
Malta, which she had conquered, as well as in other distant
points which she held before the war, was paralleled by the
inability of Great Britain to keep her colonies in the War
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 189
of American Independence; not merely the colonies on
the Continent but in the West Indies, and to some degree
in India and Africa, as well as in Minorca, which fell after
a six months' siege. This failure was due to the distance,
to the number and distribution of the several positions,
which led to scattering the forces, and to the fact that, de-
spite her fine navy, the alliance of the French and Spanish
navies was thought, erroneously, to be too strong for her.
The extent of the losses of either nation at different times
shows the large deductions that must be made from the
strength of a strategic position, even as affecting the imme-
diate theater of war, in consequence of its distance from
the home country. The great advantage of nearness to
the latter is apparent in itself and from these instances.
This was the greatest advantage of Japan over Russia in
their recent war, and is the advantage which Japan still pos-
sesses over all other nations for action in the western Pacific.
The center of her national power is close by the scene of
possible international contentions in that which we know
as the Far East. This will be the advantage possessed by
Austria in the Mediterranean should she succeed in push-
ing her political tenure through the western Balkan penin-
sula to Salonika and the region round about, — a progress
resembling that of Russia through Siberia and Manchuria
to Port Arthur, and feared by Italy and Russia, whose
jealousy of such a future was shown by the interview of
their sovereigns at RacconigL
Rapid distant expeditions, then, are more feasible by sea
than by land, because of the greater mobility of navies ;
but they are also less decisive in their effects than an equal
success won in the mother country or over the fleet, be-
cause the blow is delivered upon the extremities and not
at the heart They are also harder to sustain than to
make. Once launched and away, if the secret has been
well kept there may be good hope of a pursuing fleet
190 NAVAL STRATEGY
taking a wrong direction, thoagh scarcely of the objective
being surprised in these days of cables and wireless. But
when the immediate object of the expedition has been ac-
complished, the assailant passes from the offensive to the
defensive, with its perplexities ; and to maintain his con-
quest he must control the line of communications, that is,
the sea.
It should be noted, also, that for the immediate suc-
cess which is essential to final success, such distant
maritime expeditions can hope only when there is no
effectual opposition to be feared at the point of landing ;
while ultimate success depends upon there being no inter-
ference by the enemy's fleet after landing. This was shown
at Sebastopol and at Port Arthur. In neither of these in-
stances was adequate opposition to the landing made, and
in neither did the enemy's fleet afterwards trouble effec-
tively the communications of the besiegers. During the
War of American Independence, although France and
Spain took many small islands from Great Britain, as well
as the distant and weak Pensacola, they did not succeed
against Jamaica or Gibraltar. At Minorca the result was dif-
ferent; because, although to reduce the island required six
montlis, the British could spare no fleet in that quarter to
intercept the expedition, as they did for Jamaica, or to mo-
lest the siege, as at Gibraltar. Jamaica was saved by Rod-
ney's victory over the French fleet at the moment it sailed
for the attack, in result of which no landing could be at-
tempted At Gibraltar resistance could not be made to the
enemies establishing their lines on land, for they controlled
the land; but the British fleet continually interfered
by throwing in supplies, and the siege consequently was
unsuccessful.
All consideration goes to show that the supreme esseur
tial condition to the assertion and maintenance of national
power in external maritime regions is the possession of
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 191
a fleet superior to that of any probable opponent. This
simply reaffiims the principle of land warfare, that the ar-
mies in the field, not the garrisons, are the effective instru-
ments of decisive war. The occupation of harbors militarily
secure, although valuable and even necessary, is secondary
to the fleet Having in view the particular question now
interesting us, — the possession of strategic positions in
remote regions, — and accepting fully Napoleon's maxim
that *^ War is a business of positions,** we may safely coin
for ourselves the strategic aphorism, that in naval war the
fleet itself is the key position of the whole. Pertinent to
this, it may be noted that the Japanese in the recent war
began by landing much of the supplies of the fleet at their
protected permanent base in the Elliott islands, but later,
as an administrative expedient, found it better to keep a
large part afloat. That which is afloat can be kept in
vessels capable of accompanying the fleet, which thus
carries its base with it, and so can occupy a convenient
harbor, though unfortified, its own strength affording for
the moment the necessary protection. Efforts for maritime
military efficiency therefore must be concentrated on the
fleet ; but at the same time, as a matter of correct pro-
fessional tiiinkmg, let us avoid the extreme of tiie Blue
Water School, and bear in mind that a fleet charged with
the care of its base is a fleet by so far weakened for effective
action — weakened both strategically and tactically.
Fortified bases of operations are as needful to a fleet as
to an army, but the selection and preparation of them
must be governed by certain evident principles.
First, the number of points to be seriously held must be
reduced as much as can be, so as to drain as littie as possi-
ble the strength of the mother country, and to permit her
to concentrate on those of vital importance; all others
must take their chance with guns pointing seaward only.
If the enemy be wise, he will not waste time and strength
192 NAVAL STRATEGY
on them. On the other hand, the vital points should be
most seriously strengthened and garrisoned. If the enemy
take the offensive he does so against the whole system,
and each point that is attacked should be prepared to hold
QUt for the longest time its natural advantages will permit.
Every day it does so is gained for the common defense. A
very serious effect might have been produced on the Union
forces and general campaign if Forts Jackson and St.
Philip, below New Orleans, at that very critical period of
the war, in 1862, had held out as long as they might have
done. The resistance of Port Arthur weakened seriously
the Japanese main advance, by the number of men neces-
sarily employed in the siege, and so gained strength and
time for the whole Russian scheme of operations. If the
early stages of the resistance had been more successful in
holding the besiegers at a distance, Rozhestvensky when
he arrived might have found the Port Arthur fleet still in
existence. The French garrison of Genoa in 1800 marched
out an array of skeletons, but their hardihood had gained
Bonaparte the time to place the army in the field across the
Austrian communications with home. On a smaller scale,
Ladysmith played a similar rOle in the Boer War.
A nation that has numerous scattered maritime positions
should therefore carefully study how many she can main-
tain, and which they should be ; while, on the other hand,
one which sees a necessity arising for establishing her
power, or preparing for its future assertion, in a particular
region, should as diligenUy inquire what directions her
efforts should take for securing strategic and tenable ports.
This, for instance, Grermany recentiy did in the instance of
Eiao Chau, and the United States in those of Hawaii and
Guantanamo.
Second, there is an evident order of consequence among
the various ports which may constitute the maritime system
of a particular nation. In the case of all states the home
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 198
ports come first ; because the possibility of a country being
thrown on the defensive always exists, and self-protection
not only is the first necessity of a nation, but constitutes
also the basis upon which alone can rest external action,
near or remote. Not till national power is consolidated at
home can expansive activity take place. To assuring self-
defense succeeds the maintenance of the national poli-
cies, in their relative degrees of importance. As these
may vary from age to age, the value of ports will vary
also. Nevertheless, at any particular epoch there will be a
national policy more or less clearly formulated; and the
remoter ports, which are essential to the fleet's part in this,
should be regarded together with the home ports as a
whole, a system, not merely as isolated positions.
Thus, to take the chief maritime state of modem history,
— Great Britain. At the opening of her real career as a
naval power Holland is the enemy, and the great dock-
yard is at Chatham. To this, now that Grermany has
become the rival naval state, the new position Rosyth,
with Chatham, correspond. To antagonism against Hol-
land succeeded alliance, the two states sharing in the
universal combination against Louis XIV. Military policy
then drew Great Britain to the Mediterranean, whither
commercial interest had already drawn her navy in support
of the merchant ships. The occupation of Tangier and its
development by fortification and mole were an abortive
first fruit of British interest in that sea; but the successive
acquirements of Gibraltar, Minorca, Malta, emphasized that
the Mediterranean had become the first object of Great
Britain's policy, after self-protection in home waters was
provided. All these three were fortresses in the strict
sense of the word.
As the eighteenth century advanced, British interests in
the Mediterranean remained, but became secondary to those
in the West Indies and in North America. The business
194 NAVAL STRATEGY
of the old ** Turkey merchant/' as he used to be called,
took rank beneath the sugar of the West Indies, the rice
and tobacco of the American continent, the furs of Canada,
and the fisheries of Newfoundland. Jamaica, which in my
judgment has the most controlling situation in the Carib-
bean, we may infer to have been strongly fortified and
garrisoned, from the extent of the preparations for its re-
duction made in 1782 by the allied nations. France had
become the enemy, and so remains through the century.
This condition is emphasized at home by the growing im-
portance of Portsmouth and Plymouth as dockyards ; but
the continental colonies of Oreat Britain, now embraced in
the United States, seem to have had only seacoast defense.
This is a tacit recognition that they are already too strong
in population, as in extent, and too distant, for conquest
by a foi*eign nation, provided the British navy maintained
the superiority at sea which it had throughout. Louisburg
and Quebec are fortified by the French and garrisoned
against siege, just because the population of Canada is
so littie numerous, and the French navy so inferior, that
neither by land nor by sea is their security assured. Their
fall emphasizes one consideration in fortification too easily
overlooked ; namely, that a fortified place, when it passes
into the hands of an enemy, transfers to him the advantage,
not only of the situation, but of the strength of the works
also. If a colonial port thus falls, it is to be desired that
it should not also afford immediate artificial protection
against recapture from the land side ; as Quebec, for in-
stance, did in 1760, in the winter following Wolfe's victory.
The deduction from this is, that in places which justify
fortification both the works and the garrison must be ade-
quate to all probable exigencies.
During the periods mentioned, British national policy
developed coincidently with almost constant war. Hence,
the scheme of fortified stations rather grew than was studied;
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 195
in this mach resembling the British Constitution. The
United States has had little war, and her external policies
have developed unaffected by that military atmosphere
which insures unconscious preparation. As regards condi-
tions changing, it may be interesting to recall that when the
lectures which constitute the body of this treatment were
first written, the armored fleets of the United States, of Ger-
many, and of Japan, did not exist ; that Cuba, Porto Rico,
and the Philippines were still Spanish, and Hawaii an in-
dependent community. It may be added that the General
Board of the navy had not been constituted, nor the Joint
Board of Army and Navy Officers.
It would be inappropriate to discuss here in detail a
scheme of fortified ports for the United States, for the ob-
vious reason that the boards just mentioned are doubtless
dealing with the matter, with a thoroughness and an extent
of information not here available. But some general stra-
tegic considerations may be summarized.
First of all, what is the essential military requisite of a
naval station? Evidently that it should be useful in war.
Now, in these days, when it takes at least two years to build
and equip a battleship, it is evident at once that shipbuild-
ing cannot be reckoned a primary military object in a navy
yard. If ships built in a navy yard are better, or cheaper,
or built more rapidly, those are good industrial or econom-
ical reasons ; but none of them is a military reason. The
highest function of a navy yard is to maintain the fleet in
efficiency in war ; and especially to restore it in the short-
est possible time when suffering from injuries, whether aris-
ing from ordinary service or in battle. No utility in peace
will compensate for the want of this in war. The selection
of particular sites to serve this end should be governed by
this one consideration, of usefulness in war ; which may be
analyzed, as we have before, into Position, Strength, and
Resources. Of these resources, the chief one is copious
196 NAVAL STRATEGY
provision for docking rapidly ; and a site that lends itself
to this is to be preferred to one that does not, even if there
be some advantage as to situation or natural resources.
Evidently the differing degrees in which the three requi-
sites may exist will complicate decision, but it need not
and should not be complicated by considerations of build-
ing ships.
This applies to all chief naval stations, whether on the
home coasts or abroad. At home each coast frontier
should possess two such naval stations ; one of which may
be chief, the otiier secondary in development. As regards
stations external to the home coimtiy, the number and
choice of them depends upon the national policy. If such
policy fasten on interests near home, as in the Caribbean^
the development of a naval station there may be conditioned
by the proximity of the home ports. In the War of Seces-
sion^ for example, Port Royal, Key West, Pensacola, and
New Orleans were all naval stations, but of very limited
development. The character of the war, the enemy having
no fleet, allowed vessels to be sent to the Northern dock-
yards for repair, the force at the front being maintained by
reliefs.
Some system of reliefs is needed for every force ; but it
will be realized that docking at least should be possible at
a less distance than from Mobile to Norfolk, or to New
York, and this facility must be insured, when attainable.
The War of Secession was one of very numerous vessels of
moderate size, little homogeneous, and essentially not con-
centrated except on rare occasions of battle ; the time for
which was at the deliberate choice of the one side possess-
ing a navy. Where fleet is opposed to fleet, each of a
limited number of large ships, it will be very urgent that
a vessel or vessels spared for repairs should not have far
to go nor long to wait.
When these lectures were first written the United States
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES
197
had but one external policy, properly called policy, — the
" Monroe Doctrine." She now has two, the Becond being
the " Open Door." Doubtless external relations bring up
many kinds of questions, the treatment of which by the
Government proceeds for the most part on certain estab-
lished principles. These principles, because ascertained
and iixed, may be styled policies ; but they apply to special
and occasional incidents, and therefore have not the con-
tinuous influence attaching to the two named. These de-
pend upon conditions so constant and so determinative
of national attitude, as well as essential to national well-
being, that they have formative effect upon national opin-
ion and steady inQuence upon diplomacy. The Open Door,
which in usage indicates equal commercial opportunity, is
intimately associated locally with the question of Asiatic
immigration to America. Asiatic immigration again is
closely linked with the Monroe Doctrine, for it has become
evident that Asiatics are so different from Europeans that
they do not blend socially. They live side by side, but as
separate communities, instead of being incorporated in the
mass of the population. Consequently a laige prepon-
derance of Asiatics in a ^ven region is a real annexation,
more effective tlian the political annexations against which
the Monroe Doctiine was formulated. Hawaii Is an in-
stance in point; and the well-known objections of Japan
to the political attachment of Hawaii to the United States
would undoubtedly have gone further, if more imminent
questions had not commanded her attention. Free Asiatic
immigration to the Pacific coast, in its present condition
of sparse population, would mean Asiatic occupation — Asia
colonized in America. This the United States Government
cannot accept, because of the violent resistance of the
Pacific States, if for no other reason.
This combination of facts, resulting in a national policy,
imposes naval stations in the Pacific, just as the entrance of
198 NAVAL STRATEGY
the Mediterranean into the sphere of British interests com-
pelled the gradual acquisition of stations there. While the
Monroe Doctrine was the sole positive external policy of
the United States, as contrasted with the negative policy
of keeping clear of entanglements with foreign states,
national interest gradually but rapidly concentrated about
the Caribbean Sea ; because through it lie the approaches
to the Isthmus of Panama, the place where the Monroe
Doctrine focusses. This was the condition when these
lectures were first written. The question of the Pacific
and its particular international bearings was then barely
foreshadowed and drew littie attention. Now, for the
several reasons stated, the Pacific possesses an actual im«
mediate importance; indeed, the shifting of interest may be
compared to that which in the latter half of the eighteenth
century made the western Atlantic, from Canada to Yen*
ezuela, overpass the Mediterranean in the appreciation of
British statesmen. The Mediterranean did not thereby
cease to be important; it only lost the lead. In the same
way the Caribbean remains important ; perhaps it has not
even quite lost the lead, but it is balanced by the Pacific.
The approaching completion of the Panama Canal will
bring the two into such close connection that the selected
ports of both obviously can and should form a well-
considered system, in which the facilities and endumnce
of each part shall be proportioned to its relations to the
whole.
Finally, the maintenance of any system of maritime
fortified stations depends ultimately upon superiority upon
the sea — upon the navy. The fall of a wholly isolated
strong post may be long postponed, but it is sure to come
at last The most conspicuous instance is the celebrated
three years' siege of Gibraltar, from 1779 to 1782. All
attacks against the Rock were shattered to pieces ; but it
must have fallen, save for the energy and skill of the
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 199
British navy in throwing in supplies. The active aimy in
the field, let us say, relieved the besieged fortress.
An immediate corollary to this last proposition is that in
war the proper main objective of the navy is the enemy's
navy. As the latter is essential to maintain the connection
between scattered strategic points, it follows that a blow at
it is the surest blow at them. There is something pitiful
in seeing the efforts of a great naval force, with the enemy's
fleet within its reach, directed towards unimportant land
stations, as was the case with the French fleet under
D'Estaing in the West Indies during 1778 and 1779 ; or
even against important stations like Gibraltar, to the ex-
* elusion of the hostile fleet The service of the fleet and of
the ports is reciprocal ; but, except the home ports, they
have more need of it than it of them. Therefore the
fleet should strike at the organized force of the enemy
afloat, and so break up the communication between his
ports.
CHAPTER IX
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES
Distant Operations and Mabitdce Expeditions
NOTWITHSTANDING the difficulty of main-
taining distant and separated dependencies, a
nation which wishes to assnre a share of con-
trol on any theater of maritime importance
cannot afford to be without a footing on some of the strate-
gic points to be found there. Such points, suitably chosen
for their relative positions, form a base ; secondary as re-
gards the home country, primary as regards the immediate
theater.
The principle laid down by military writers, that an
base near the scene of operations, on the same principles
that determine the character of the first, and with sure
communications knitting the two together, holds good
here ; only it must be remembered that secure communica-
tions at sea mean naval preponderance, especially if the
distance between the home and the advanced bases be great
Such secondary bases should be constituted on the same
principles as those of the home frontier ; that is, it is expedi-
ent that there be two fortified ports, of which one only need
be of the first order. They should be near enough to yield
each other support, but not so near as to allow the enemy
to watch both effectively without dividing his main fleet
In 1803 to 1806 the British fleet under Nelson, watching
Toulon, thus had at its disposal both Malta and Gibraltar.
These not only shared in supporting the fleet, but each
supported the other by dividing the burden of protecting
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 201
the long line of commercial communication from the Chan-
nel to the Levant If the Russians in the yeais preced-
ing the late war had sent their entire fleet to the Far East
they would have outnumbered the Japanese and rested
upon Port Arthur and Vladivostok. The Japanese, on the
other handy would have had the advantage of the Inland
Sea and its several exits for combining unexpected move-
ments.^ A port like Eure, on the Inland Sea, with two or
more entrances widely removed from one another, has the
advantage of two ports combined with the advantage of
activities concentrated in one. When two ports are pos-
sessed, as in these instances, the base of operations com-
prising two or more points may be thought of as a line,
like the home coast frontier. The ideal condition is that
the ports should be in communication by land as well as
water. Ports in the large islands, Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica,
would possess this advantage, for elample, Santiago, Cien-
fuegos, Havana; but two ports in any one of the Lesser
Antilles would be too near togetiier. They would be prac-
tically a single port.
If the given theater of maritime war be extensive and
contain many points susceptible of strategic usefulness, the
choice among them becomes important. If a point be cen-
tral its influence is more evenly distributed, and from it
all parts of the theater are more easily reached; but if its
influence does not extend to the boundary lines of the area
in question its communications with home are endangered.
Thus Jamaica, from its central position, is one of the most
important points in the Caribbean ; but if Great Britain
were confined to Jamaica the communications from home,
passing through the passages controlled by other nations,
would be insecure. The same could have been said in
1798 of Egypt, relatively to France, though central as re-
gards Europe and India, if without Malta or an equivalent ;
^ See map facing page 426L
202 NAVAL STRATEGY
and indeed, at times, notwithstanding the commanding
position of Egypt, the British have felt nneasy as to
their communications with it, although they have Gibraltar
and Malta, both secure against a e(mp de main and giving
shelter to their fleet First in order among external posi-
tions are those lying on the side nearest the mother coun-
try; only when safe here can a farther step be sure.
Gibraltar, for instance, may be considered a necessary first
step to Egypt ; Santa Lucia, a convenient half-way house,
at the least, to Jamaica. Second in order, though first in
importance on the particular theater, are the central posi-
tions; for example, Malta in the Mediterranean and Ja-
maica in the Caribbean. Those lying on the side farthest
from the nation interested, however important, are most
exposed, for example, Egypt and Panama, and care should
be taken to strengthen their communications with home
by intermediate posts. Great Britain has a chain of such
posts to India.
From all these considerations, it follows that when a
government recognizes that the national interests in a par-
ticular region may become of such character as to demand
military action, it should be made the business of some
competent body of men to study the ground carefully, after
collecting the necessary information, and to decide what
points have strategic value and which among them are
most advantageous for occupation. When such positions
are already occupied, the tenure of the present possessor
has generally to be respected, and the conditions under
which it becomes right to disregard it are not within the
decision of the military man, but of the statesman. It will
be granted, however, that occasions may arise in which a
state may exercise its rights of war in order to protect inter-
ests which it thinks vital ; and that the control of a mari-
time region may become a necessity of the war, if not its
prime motive. When this is the case, what are technically
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 203
called *^ operations of war" follow. The state may aim
either at acquiring control, or at extending the control it
already has ; or, on the other hand, may seek only to defend
that which is m present possession, by checking advances
threatening to it.
If the aim be to acquire control not already held, the
war becomes offensive in its motive and, necessarily, in its
operations also. The military operations, however, may
not be directed immediately against the object the acqui-
sition of which is sought. It may be that the enemy is
more assailable in some other point which at the same time
he values more ; and that by moving against this, the true
object may be more surely reached than by a direct attack.
The question here touches the entire conduct of oper-
ations. It is, for the belligerent government, analogous to
that which presents itself to the commander-in-chief before
every position from which he seeks to dislodge an enemy,
— shall it be attacked in front, or turned? The former
takes more strength, the latter more time. An illustration
is to be foimd in the attempt of the French and Spanish to
take Gibraltar from England during the War of American
Independence. The attack was made direct upon Gibraltar
-the strongest miUtary post in the British dominions-
and failed. The same amount of power directed against
the English Channel and coast, and skilfully used, could
scarcely, under the existing conditions of immense numer-
ical naval superiority, have &iled to wring from England
the cession of Gibraltar. The conquests of a war are fre*
quentiy valuable only as a means of barter in the treaty
that ends it. The correspondence of the first Napoleon
teems with instructions to this purport.
It may thus happen that the object of the war may not
be the objective of the military plan. The object of the
war, indeed, may not be the gain of territory at all, but of
privileges or rights denied before; or to put an end to
204 NAVAL STRATEGY
wrongs done to the declarant. Even so, an attack upon
some of the enemy's possessions will probably form part of
the plan of operations.
The case before us is limited by our subject to the con-
trol of a maritime region, — a control to be either partial or
total according to circumstances. To embark upon such
a war with any prospect of success, a nation must have
two conditions : first, frontiers reasonably secure from vital
injury; and secondly, a navy capable of disputing the con-
trol of the sea with its enemy under his present conditions.
The frontier, or coast, in its broadest sense, is the base of
the whole war, the defensive upon which it rests, answer-
ing to the narrower base of operations from which a single
operation of war starts. The navy is the chief arm by
which the offensive is to be carried on ; for, while in the de-
fense the navy plays a secondary rOle, in offensive naval
war it takes a leading place. Even in case of a large eomr
bined operation, the chief part is reserved to the ships;
unless under circumstances when the enemy has none, and
the work of the fleet is so found done to its hand, as at
Sebastopol. To that scene of war there were two lines of
communications : one by land wholly in the power of Rus-
sia, the other by sea equally controlled by the allies, the
enemy having dismantled and sunk his ships. The case
was therefore reduced to the siege of a great fortress abso-
lutely undisturbed by fears for the communications of the
besiegers. In the case of Gibraltar, in 1779-1782, the
offense failed through the weakness or imbecility of the al-
lied navies ; had these been lip to their work, the British
fleet could not have thrown in supplies.
The question of waging war in a maritime region
beyond the immediate neighborhood of the country so
engaged is simply a particular case of general military
operations. The case is that of maritime expeditions, in
remote waters, where the country may or may not possess
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 206
already positions useful for the purposes of war; but
where in either case it is proposed to make offensive move-
ments, and to possess, or at the least to control, enemy's
territory. Even though the leading object of the war be
defense, defense is best made by offensive action.
The specific feature which differentiates these operations
from others, and imparts to them their peculiar character-
istic, is the helplessness while afloat of the army contingent
embarked, — its entire dependence for security upon the
control of the sea by the navy of its nation. Be it large or
small, however efficient in itself in courage, discipline, and
skill, it is paralyzed for effective action during the period
of -transit. The critical nature of this period, together
with the subsequent risk to its communications, which
depend continuously upon the same control, are the dis-
tinguishing elements to be borne constantly in mind while
considering this subject.
A few cursory remarks on the leading features of such
expeditions in general will first be offered ; and then, for
the purposes of illustration, two historical cases will be
briefly described and discussed.
Having the two fundamental requisites already stated, a
reasonably secure home frontier and a navy adequate to
dispute control of the sea with the enemy, the next thing
is to determine the particular plan of operations best suited
to obtain your purpose. This involves the choice of a
base, of an objective, and of a line of operations, — three
things inherent in every operation of war.
Putting aside, as involving too wide a scope, the question
of attacking the enemy elsewhere than upon the maritime
region which you wish to control, the ultimate objective
there should be that position, line, or district which in its
influence upon the general situation may be considered the
most important; to use a common expression, the key or
keystone. If the particular region aimed at is decidedly
206 NAVAL STRATEGY
nearer to one of your eea frontiers than to the others the
base of the plan of operations will be found there, unless
prevented by other serious reasons, such as the lack of
good harbors or established dockyards. Thus Great Brit-
ain, now that Grermany has become the threatening naval *
power, demands another dockyard — pre-eminently a dock-
ing yard — on the North Sea, at Rosyth, additional to the
one already possessed at Chatham. This evidently means
that, as against the German coast and for operations in the
North Sea, the British base is shifted to the North Sea from
the Channel, defined by Plymouth and Portsmouth. So
Austria and Russia have been pushing territorially towards
the Mediterranean, because their other outlets thither, re-
spectively at the head of the Adriatic and from the Black Sea,
are too remote, and with communications to the sea too ex-
posed militarily, to be satisfactory as bases of operations.
On the other hand, the United States possesses in its Gulf
coast a base line distinctly nearer to the Isthmus and to
the western half of the Caribbean than are Norfolk and
New York, the two chief naval stations indicated by nature
on the Atlantic Coast. Tet it is doubtful whether, with
the great increase of size in battleships, and with the diffi-
culties of docking in the Mississippi, the Gulf ports can
provide an ultimate base of operations equal to those of
the Atlantic ; whether they will not rather constitute in-
termediate advanced ports, valuable as sources of supply
because of their nearness, but inadequate to the greater
repairs. At the same time, Guantanamo and Key West, in
case of operations towards the Isthmus, offer such marked
advantages on account of nearness and of mutual support
that a secondary provision for docking in them would be
highly desirable, and probably expedient. Some military
risk must be taken ; as is the case, for instance, with the
British docks at Gibraltar, which under modem conditions
are within range of the Algeciras shore.
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 207
The great aisenals define the position of the base line,
and in large degree its length. Their local resources, of
torpedo vessels and submarines, will tend to protect the
seaboard between them, and also a little to each side, from
the enemy's operations. The question of moving from the
base thus fixed to the objective chosen involves the choice
of a line of operations. In the open field of the sea the
most direct route is the most natural, and, other things being
equal, the best ; but many circumstances may influence the
decision. Paramount among these is the strength of the
navy as compared with that of the enemy, — a strength
dependent not only upon aggregate tonnage or weight of
metal, but also upon the manner in which those aggregates
have been distributed among the various classes of vessels
and upon the characteristics of each class in point of arma-
ment, armor, speed, and coal endurance. All these quali-
ties are elements in strategic efficiency, sometimes mutually
contradictory ; and the adjustments of them among them-
selves may seriously affect strategic calculations. This
illustrates that the composition of a national fleet is really
a strategic question. The known efficiency of the respec-
tive services, and the comparative distance of the belligerent
countries from the objective point, which is assumed to be
the same for each, — the one to defend, the other to attack,
— will also influence the choice of the line of operations,
because the length of the lines of communication to be
guarded will materially affect the strength of the contest-
ants. It 18 upon these lines, or belts of sea, that &8t
cruisers can specially embarrass the operation, compelling
the employment of a large proportion of the fleet to check
their movements. The shorter and the more numerous
these lines, and the farther they pass from an enemy's ports,
the greater the task of the enemy and the probable im-
munity of the lines.
As much of that with which we are about to deal, namely.
208 NAVAL STRATEGY
the adTance of a great maritime expedition, — a body of
ships of war conToying an anny embarked in transports, —
may not impossibly seem to some as talking in the air of a
thing that never did happen or can happen, bear in mind
that it did happen in 1798, under the greatest general of
modem times, and that the expedition was pursued by a
fleet of about equal size under Nelson, one of the greatest
admirals of all time; also, that the questions here raised
must have been subjects of careful thought at that time to
both Napoleon and Nelson. As to such a thing never hap-
pening again, consider the evident future importance of the
West Indies and the Caribbean Sea, regarded as approaches
to the Isthmus, and through the Isthmus to the Pacific
Ocean, in its full extent; also the shortness in time of
the distance between any two points in the Caribbean.
Remember continually the smallness of that sea, that its
length is but one-half that of the Mediterranean, so that
great expeditions may well happen there under circum-
stances peculiarly favorable to such enteiprises.
Where a navy is largely preponderant over that of an
enemy, such over-sea expeditions by large bodies of troops
proceed in security, either perfect or partiaL Great Brit-
ain during the Napoleonic wars had troops continually
afloat, often in large bodies. So did the United States in
the Mexican War and the War of Secession. So France
in her conquest of Algiers in 1830, and again Great Britain
and France during the Crimean War. Security such as
existed in these instances leaves little of a military prob-
lem ; but the case differs when there is an approach towards
equality, even though the superiority of one be distinct and
emphatic. Vastly superior though the British navy was to
the French in Napoleon's time, its tasks were so numerous
and onerous that, to quote again, it could not be in force
eveiywbere, and there was always the chance that a hos-
tile division might fall in with an important convoy. Pro-
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 209
tection localized with the convoy, that is, a body of armed
ships in company, was therefore necessary, and the force
of these armed ships was proportioned to the importance
of the enteiprise. It is necessary in this day of ours to
remember that the convoys did sail to and fro, and that
they were thus protected, fortified, so to say, by armed
vessels ; for the Blue Water School, or Fleet in Being School,
hold that they ought not to sail at all while the enemy's
fleet exists in the neighborhood of the line followed. Such
convoys of troops were despatched by both belligerents
during the War of American Independence, when there
was a substantial equality between the opposing navies.
With a navy much superior to that of the enemy, —
after allowance made for the length of the line of opersr
tions which has to be secured, — it is permissible to strike
at once for the coveted objective ; the sooner the better.
If in so doing you pass by a strategic harbor held by him,
capable of sheltering his ships, — a position from which he
may with some probability intercept your supplies of coal
or ammunition, — this position will require attention to the
extent of reducing to manageable proportions the injury
possible to it to do.
Thus Jamaica and Santiago lie close to the Windward
Passage, which is the direct route from the United States
Atlantic ports to the Isthmus; and Cadiz and Gibraltar
lie close to the necessary route of all vessels bound from
the Atlantic into the Mediterranean. The military char-
acterization of such positions is that ** they flank the route.'*
If they harbor ships of war, the route must be protected by
force so constituted and so stationed near the port as to
check the movements of the ships within. Such a detach-
ment involves exposure to the vessels composing it, in case
the enemy has a fleet superior to it anywhere within
steaming range. Thus, when the French Brest fleet, in
1799, appeared suddenly in the Mediterranean, the British
210 NAVAL STRATEGY
were divided in several bodies, with more than one of
which it might have dealt effectively in succession and
in detail. Detachments also entail upon the main body a
reduction of strength ; but not necessarily, nor always, to
such a degree as to arrest progress to the objective. Owing
to the variety and importance of British interests, military
and commercial, and their wide dispersion. Great Britain
in former times found her maritime routes thus flanked in
many places by many ports, — by Brest, Rochef ort, Ferrol,
Cadiz, Toulon, as weU as in remoter seas. She met the
difficulty by detachments before each, commensurate to
those within. The continuousness of this disposition, and
the more important military effect it produced in prevent-
ing the several hostile divisions from uniting for offensive
action, tend to obscure the fact that these various sea posi-
tions were thus watched and checked ; ezactiy as a general
on shore guards his line of advance against the dangers
from a fortress, the position of which threatens his oom-
munications in case he is not able to reduce it.
A disposition has been shown lately to cast doubts upon
the effect of flanking positions upon lines of communica-
tion, as compared to the effect of fortification concentrated
upon the objective to which the communications lead.
There is no need for such comparison, for no contradiction
between the two exists. That Malta can exercise a power-
ful influence upon the communications of an expedition
from a western Mediterranean country acting in Egypt,
does not contravene the value of miHtaiy force in Egypt
itself, mobile or fortified. In 1813, Wellington held in
Portugal the impregnable fortified position of Torres Ve-
dras, securing against land attack his sea base at Lisbon ;
yet the puny force of American privateers acting off Cape
Finisterre seriously harassed his communications with the
British Islands.
If such a point, on or near your line of operations, now
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 211
become that of communications, — that is, on the line
which it was safe for your battle fleet to follow, though not
safe for transports, — can be avoided, by making a circuit
through waters wholly out of its sweep and nearly safe,
your line of communications may be changed. It may be
that the character of the port or the known number
of its war-shipping will allow the opening of that line
from time to time, by convoying transports in large de-
tachments throughout the whole of the more exposed part
of the line. Thus the great convoys which at long intervals
relieved Gibraltar, 1779-1782, were protected by fleets of
battle-ships.
There are two modes by which the supplies of a fleet
may be sent forward: one by single supply ships taking
their chance, depending upon the routes they follow being
controlled by the patrols of their own navy ; the other by
large convoys under the immediate protection of a body of
armed ships. It is probable that both modes will be used;
the convoy system being the dependence for the main sup-
ply, supplemented by the occasional single vessels. The
convoys must be heavily protected, because their sailings
should be watched and their destruction attempted by the
enemy as one of the regular secondary operations of war;
it will therefore be expected to fight a battle for their safety.
Single ships must depend upon their speed, upon choos-
ing routes with a view to avoiding danger, and upon the
general police of the seas by ships of the cruiser class.
Whatever the particular mode adopted, two or more lines
of supplies converging toward the objective or toward the
position of the fleet are an advantage ; more so, perhaps,
to a stream of single vessels than to large convoys, as the
latter, in any case, must be guarded and so weaken the
fighting force. The United States is preparing to fortify
the Isthmus, and consequently to garrison the fortifications.
It seems evident that, in case of hostilities, it will be ex-
212 NAVAL STRATEGY
pedient that supplies proceed from both the Golf and the
Atlantic, as weU as from the Pacific.
A fleet operating some distance from home should not
depend upon a single line of supplies. It may be said,
generally, that while concentration is the proper disposition
for the fighting force, or for preparation for battle, the
system of supplies should not be concentrated upon a single
line, when avoidable. This statement is, in effect, an ap-
plication of one of Napoleon's brief, pithy sayings, quoted
by Thiers ; ^ The art of war," he said, ^ consists in the
skill to disperse in order to subsist, yet in such manner
that you may quickly concentrate in order to fight.''
If the reduction of force, by watching an intermediate
port, is necessary and also reduces you to an equality with
the enemy ; or, while leaving you still superior, takes away
the chance of overcoming the resistance of the objective
before the arrival of adequate relief, then the force should
not be divided. Either the wayside port must be taken, or,
if you think you can get on with your present supplies
until a decisive action has been fought, you may continue
on, abandoning your communications for the moment, —
cutting loose, as the expression is, from your base and
leaving the hostile flanking port nothing on which to work
its will. So serious a step, of course, must not be taken
without a certainty that the g^at essential, fuel, will not
faiL Without ammunition a ship may run away, human
life may be supported on half rations, but without coal a
ship can neither fight nor run.
If, as is assumed, the objective is a part of the land, a
port or island in the possession of the enemy, the conquest
may not immediately and necessarily give the decisive
control of the war that a like acquisition on shore may
give ; because the necessary and limited lines of communi-
cation, which often center in such a key to a land region,
possession of which conveys absolute mastery, have few ex-
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 218
act parallels at sea. This is due to the fact before alluded
to and patent to a glance, that, owing to the open charac-
ter of the ocean, shipping can take many routes to avoid
passing near a particular strategic position. A strategic
position on land derives much of its importance from the
fact that armies are forced to follow certain roads, or incur
disproportionate disadvantage by taking others. It is true
that there are some near parallels now; as, for instance,
Gibraltar. The Russian navy of the Black Sea may be
absolutely checked by the possession of the Bosporus or
Dardanelles; and it is conceivable that if one great sea
power controlled the shores of the North Sea, while another
about equal lay along the Channel and Bay of Biscay, the
holding of the Straits of Dover by one would seriously
embarrass the movements of the other. A canal like Suez
is equally such a point.
These instances, however, are exceptional ; the power of
the keys of maritime regions is like that of the key of a
shore theater of war in kind, but falls short of it in de-
gree. The historical instance before cited, the seizure of
Egypt and Malta by Bonaparte, precisely illustrates the
assertion. The key to the control of the East by the West
was in the hands of the French, but they could not use it;
nay, it was finally torn from their hands by the naval
strength of their foes. What, indeed, is the good of hold-
ing the point where roads cross, if you can neither use the
roads yourself nor hinder your enemy from using them?
Therefore, if successful in seizing the objective at which
you have aimed, by being beforehand with the enemy, —
thanks either to better preparation for war, or greater
aqtivity of movement, or by being nearer the seat of war,
— you cannot think your conquest secure until you have
established your naval superiority, and thereby your control
of the roads which connect you with home, and also of
those the nearness of which to the position you have just
214 NAVAL STRATEGY
taken give it its importance. This superiority may be
established, it is tnie, by the conquest itself, the loss de-
priving the enemy of a necessary naval base and perhaps of
a considerable part of his ships; more generally it will
arise from your fleet being superior in numbers or quality
to his. The same remark is evidently true concerning
positions already held before a war breaks out; as, for in-
stance, the Panama Canal Zone and Hawaii, the ultimate
retention of which will depend upon the strength of the
fleet It must be remembered that the Monroe Doctrine is
not a military force, but only a political pronouncement.
If decisive naval superiority does not exist, you must get
ready to fight a battle at sea, upon the results of which will
probably depend the final fate of your new gain ; as the
destruction of the French fleet at the Nile followed Bona-
parte's first success, and annulled it. Admiral Togo's sig-
nal to his fleet off Tsushima, ^The fate of the Empire
depends upon this day's work,'' though primarily an appeal
to patriotism, was ultimately and simply a particular ap-
Japan by readiness, skill, and promptitude had projected
the national power across sea, forestalling the action of
Russia, as Bonaparte that of Great Britain. She had con-
quered a secure foothold in Korea and Manchuria, and had
seized Port Arthur, as the French had Egjrpt and Malta.
The positional keys of the situation were in her hands ; but
the defeat of Togo's fleet would have annulled all previous
successes, as that of Brueys by Nelson did the achieve-
ments of Bonaparte. Conversely, Russia also at the same
moment had projected Rozhestvensky's fleet, in like manner,
close to the position she coveted to attain, accompanying it
with convoy and coal destined to further future operations ;
but within easy range of her point of arrival she had first
to fight a battle, in which fleet, coal, and convoy went
down to a common destruction.
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 215
It may, indeed, very well be that the inevitaUe battle
woald have to be fought before instead of after the fall of
the position. If the land defenses against which your ex-
pedition is moving were weak or in decay, while the
enemy's fleet was nearly equal to your own, it would be
the duty of the latter to attack you, hampered as you may
be in such an expedition with the care of transports and
supply ships, and at some distance from the port. Much
more will this be the case if the enemy is moving to a
home port, from which you aim to debar him, as Togo did
Rozhestvensky.
If Nelson, in 1798, could have come up with Bonaparte,
he should and would have attacked at sea, for doing which
he had made systematic preparation ; and, if successful in
his assault upon the ships of war, he would have effec-
tually stopped the expedition. In 1759, when large prepa-
rations were made in France for the invasion of England,
and again in 1795, when it was proposed to send eighteen
thousand troops from Toulon for the reconquest of Cor-
sica, it was argued by the French authorities that the fleet
should first fight that of the British, because this, being
equal to their own, must be got rid of in order to make the
passage safely. It must be noted; however, that the infe-
rior skill of the French generally, and of the French ad-
miral in particular, were the principal reasons that the
French ministers of marine thus urged on the occasions
named.
In such combined expeditions, the question whether the
fleet and the convoy should sail together, or the convoy be
held till control of the sea is decided, is difficult and dis-
puted. It will be better to offer certain considerations for
reflection, rather than to make sweeping dogmatic asser-
tions. It seems evident that much will depend upon the
distance of the proposed objective. In contemplated in-
vasions of Great Britain, as by the French in 1759, and by
216 NAVAL STRATEGY
Bonaparte in I8O8-I8O69 or, as is often conjectared, by Grer-
many now, the nearness of the objective, and consequently
of the expected naval battle, insures that knowledge of th0
result will be so speedy that no valuable time need be lost
in following up a victory by the transit of the land forces.
The enemy wiU not have opportunity to reconstitute his
means of resistance. Consequentiy there is no adequate
reason for exposing the troops beforehand, to share the dis-
aster if the fleet meet defeat instead of victory. Napoleon
therefore, in 1805, held his army in leash at Boulogne,
awaiting the six hours* control of the Channel which he
hoped from the presence of his fleet. As said, the same
course had been prescribed in 1759.
But if the object be remote, as Egypt was from France,
or as Panama is from the United States or Europe, or
Hawaii from every part of the Pacific shores, it may be
urgent that landing follow victory quickly, lest the enemy
recover his breath in the long interval needed for the
troops to come. In such cases, the subsequent landing is
one incident, and a very important incident, to following
up a victory properly ; and it seems entirely congruous to
all general principles to say that the means for so following
should be at hand. That is, the convoy, the troops, should
be with the fleet, in numbers at least equal to the immedi-
ate task of seizing a position, and holding it till reinforced.
This again is entirely in accord with the methods of cross-
ing a river in face of an enemy. The crossing of the sea is
simply a much magnified instance of crossing a stream. It
may be that the accompanying troops should be propor-
tioned only to that immediate work, of holding a position
till reinforced ; but the question of proportion, of numbers,
is one of detail chiefly, not of principle, and will be affected
by many other details. Naturally, one determining detail
would be the desirability of not exposing too many troops
to capture upon a defeat of the ships of war.
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 217
Again, nearby invasions may be divided into those on a
great scale, major operations of war, and those which par-
take of the character of diversions. The latter may natu-
rally accept risks greater, proportionately to their size, than
would be proper in the graver undertakings; because the
total hazard is not so great, nor will failure be so disas-
trous. Chances may be taken with a boat which would be
unjustifiable with a ship, and with a ship that would be
indiscreet with a fleet. Strategically, the success of a di-
version, although it may be eminently contributable to the
success of a war, is not vital to it, as is the success of the
great main advance. Great expeditions, invasions in force,
must have a solid sustained character, which, while de-
manding rapidity, imposes also a graduated advance, a well-
knit system, in which each step presupposes others, and
the whole a permanent sustained action, like the invasion
of France by Germany in 1870. Diversions, particularly
maritime diversions, presuppose rather a momentary action,
or at most one the prosecution of which depends upon the
turn events take. For them, therefore, all the means of
action need to be immediately disposable, in order that the
whole may proceed with instantaneous development when
the objective point is reached; and this means that the
troops must accompany the fleet. The procedure of Great
Britain abounds with illustrations of the troops accom-
panying the fleet. Such were the numerous expeditions
against West India Islands, as that against Havana in
1762, and others in the French Revolutionary Wars, and
that against the French in Egypt in 1801. These were
distant expeditions, on varying scales of size, but in all
navy and army sailed together.
Instances from British practice, however, are less illu-
minative than they would be if the British navy had been
less preponderant More convincing is the action of Hoche,
a really great general, in the expedition against Ireland in
218 NAVAL STRATEGY
1796. His army had been fixed at twenty thousand men,
though not so many went. It was to form the backbone
of what it was hoped would prove a general Irish revolt ;
that is, its final procedure would depend upon the turn
things took in Ireland* In any event, it would be only a
diversion, however influential ; but for its success it was
imperative that the landing of the troops should follow
instantiy upon the fleet anchoring, and accordingly they
went with it In 1690 the French contemplated an inva-
sion of Great Britain. It was to be a diversion only,
counting on an insurrection in favor of James II. The
fleet sailed without the troops. It won a marked victory
at Beachy Head, forcing the allied English and Dutch fleets
out of the Channel ; but the troops were not at hand and
the victory was not improved.
As a rule, a major operation of war across sea should not
be attempted, unless naval superiority for an adequate
period is probable. The reason is that already given, that
the main movement of a war should be closely knit by
steps linked one with another, which cannot be if the navy
cannot command the sea. But promising diversions are
permissible even with an inferior navy, the deciding con-
sideration being whether the prospect pf gain reasonably
overbalances the probable losses from a failure. Where
navies approach equality, as in 1690 and during the War
of American Independence, the practice generally has been
that small bodies of troops are sent out by both sides, with-
out hesitation, under appropriate convoy.
The choice of position in which the defendant fleet
would seek to find and fight such expeditions while on
their way belongs to the province of strategy. Nelson
returning to Europe from the West Indies in 1805 an-
nounced to his captains that if he met the allied fleet, of
which he was in pursuit, twenty ships to his own twelve,
he would fight them ; but not, he said, until near Europe,
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 219
unless they gave him a chance too tempting to be resisted.
I do not know that he gave any reason for this purpose as
to place. I infer that, against such odds, he would keep in
company watching for an opportunity; but that, if none
favorable offered, he would fight in any event, because, as
he said afterwards, and had said before, ** by the time they
have beaten me soundly, they will do England no more
harm this year/* This is a sound strategic motive. The
invading force being tied down to one route, or at least to
a few, the choice of where to fight will remain in the
defendant's hands to a certain extent, depending on his
knowledge of the invader's movements.
To illustrate : If Nelson had known where the French
fleet was bound in 1798 before the Nile, and could have
selected his point of attack, it would have been best to
choose it near Egypt ; because, in case of reverse to the
French, he could destroy their force more entirely at such
a distance from France, whereas, if he himself were beaten,
the British cause would not be materially worse off
because of the distance. The same reasons which lead
one party to wish a certain position for fighting, if well
founded, should determine the other to avoid fighting
there, if possible. Generally, it may be said that the
farther from his home base the iavader can be made
to fight, the better ; but this must be tempered by the
thought that a small or partial success won close to the
objective might not prevent the expedition from landing.
Suppose the case of an expedition from Cuba against Santa
Lucia. Probably, in the case assumed, the fleet of the de-
fendant, acting offensively, however, as becomes a navy,
should try to fall in with the expedition midway and
harass it on its course, — a proceeding for which it will have
a decided advantage in its freedom of maneuver, having no
transports to care for. Such harassment and abiding an
opportunity would be precisely the course proposed by
220 NAVAL STRATEGY
Nelson, and, as he also intended, should end in a resolute
attack at a point sufficiently £ar from that of the enemy's
destination. The manner of the attack belongs to the
province of tactics.
Whether it comes before or after the seizure of the objec-
tive, a battle must be fought if a decisive naval superiority
does not already exist ; and if it does, that superiority must
be energetically used to destroy every fragment of the
enemy's shipping within reach. The question of naval
inferiority need not be discussed; for no such distant
expedition as that we are considering, unless it.be only
a diversion, is justifiable in the face of a superior fleet.
When Bonaparte sailed for Egypt in 1798 with thirteen
ships-of-the-line, the British had but three in the Medi-
terranean, although the activity of Nelson enabled him to
overtake and pass the expedition after reinforcements
reached him. Even so, the British fleet was slightly in-
ferior in force to the French. On the other hand, the
French expeditions to Ireland, in the same year and in
1796, failed entirely; through a variety of causes, it is
true, but due ultimately to naval inferiority, which forced
them to take for the attempt the stormiest time of the year,
as most favorable to evasion, and so involved them in
disaster. Had a better season been chosen, the effect of
British naval command would have been only more direct,
and so more apparent. Do not understand this comment
to imply condemnation of the particular undertakings.
They were projected only as diversions, and appear to
have been properly conceived, tested by the standard
before advanced ; namely, that the reasonable prospect of
advantage overbalanced decidedly the probable losses
through a failure.
On its way, therefore, such an expedition keeps together
as much as possible. It is, for the time, free from care
about communications, inasmuch as necessary immediate
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 221
supplies accompany it. Its anxieties^ then, are not stra-
tegic, but tactical, — how to protect the fleet of transports,
and at the same time maneuver in the face of an enemy, if
encountered. Lookout and despatch service is performed by
the light cruisers ; the heavy ships of the order of battle keep
within supporting reach of the admiral and of the convoy.
This sustained concentration of the fighting ships is the
primary vital condition. These must not separate, what-
ever other divisions may occur, or detachments become
expedient. The French expedition to Ireland in 1796
might have effected its landing as certainly as did Bona^
parte in Egypt two years later, if the military and naval
commanders had stuck to the battleships, — had not
separated from the fighting force. Bonaparte, perhaps
instructed by this experience, kept himself with the
admiral in the biggest ship of the line. The convoy of
troops for Egypt was collected from several ports while
on the way. When that for Civita Yecchia was expected,
the French admiral submitted to Bonaparte a written
order to detach four ships of the line and three frigates
for its protection until it could join the main expedition.
Bonaparte wrote on the order, ^If, twenty-four hours
after this separation, ten English ships of the line are
sighted, I shall have only nine instead of thirteen." The
admiral had nothing to reply. The incident affords a
valuable illustration of the necessity of concentration of
thought and purpose ; or, to use , Napoleon's phrase,
of ^^ exclusiveness of purpose " as well as of con-
centration of force. The admiral's conception was, that by
dividing he would protect both the main convoy and the
expected detachment Bonaparte saw that instead of both
being protected, both would be exposed to overwhelming
disaster ; for if the British met the detachment they would
be thirteen to four, or, if the main body, thirteen to nine.
The detachment would be no safer with four than with
222 NAVAL STRATEGY
nine, and in like manner the main body. The smaller, being
for the moment unavoidably separate, most take its chance.
The case is absolutely on all-fours with the proposition to
divide our fleet between the Atlantic and Pacific, and with
the Russian blunder of that character in the late war.
So long as the troops are afloat, the dispositions of the
ccmvoying fleet center around their protection, are tactical
in chiu^cter, and governed by the rules applicable to every
force on the march when liable to meet the enemy; but
when the objective is reached and won, the troops take care
of themselves, the tactical dispositions of the fleet for them
disappear, and there arises immediately the strategic ques-
tion of the communications of the army, of the command
of the sea, and of the disposition of the fleet so as best to
insure these objects. An intermediate hostile port, like
Malta, flanking the communications, may then draw upon
itself the full, or at least the proportioned, effort of the fleet.
The treatment of our present theme thus far has been
by statement of general principles, with only incidental
iUnstration. There will now be cited at some length two
historical examples of expeditions such as those under dis-
cussion. Separated as the two are by an interval of two
thousand years, the lessons which they afford in common
illustrate strikingly the permanence of the great general
principles of strategy.
Sir Edward Creasy, in his ^ Fifteen Decisive Battles of
the World," ranks among these the defeat of the Athenians
before Syracuse, b. g. 415.^ Whether the particular claim
be good or not, this event certainly has a high value to
doubting students of miHtaiy history, by showing that,
under all conditions of material or mechanical develop-
ment, strategic problems remain the same, though affected
by tactical difficulties peculiar to each age.
At the time in question, two centuries before the great
1 See map facing p«ge S90.
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 223
Strife between Rome and Carthage known as the Punic
Wars, Athens had a sea power which was to the world of
that day tremendous and overwhelming. It extended over
and wielded the resources of the islands of the ^gean Sea,
and was strongly based on the coasts of the Dardanelles and
the mainland of what we now call Turkey in Europe,
whence the trade of Athens was pushed to the Black Sea
and to the Crimea, then as to^iay the center of a wheat
countiy. During nearly twenty years Athens had been
engaged in war with the combined states of the Pelopon-
nesus, now the Morea, at the head of which stood Sparta.
Lacking the insular position which has been at once the
strength and safety of Great Britain, she had seen her
petty land territory in Attica wasted up to the city walls
by the &r superior armies of the enemy ; but she still held
out proudly, based upon her great navy and her commer-
cial wealth, — in other words, upon her sea power. By it
she mastered and held two distant advanced posts upon the
hostile coasts ; one at Cape Pylus, now the Bay of Na-
varino, where the conjoined British, French, and Russian
fleets, under Sir Edward Codrington, destroyed the Turk-
ish navy in 1827, the other at Naupactus, at the entrance
of the Gulf of Corinth. Both were valuable strategic
points for making raids into the enemy's territory, and for
intercepting the com trade from Sicily, which island was
peopled by Greeks of a race kindred to Sparta. Besides
these, the island of Corcyra, now Corfu, was in strict alli-
ance with Athens ; and as in those early dajrs the course of
galleys bound from Greece to Sicily was to coast to Corfu,
then across to the lapygian Promontory, now Cape Santa
Maria di Leuca, and thence to follow the Italian coast, the
strategic worth of the island to those who controlled it is
easily seen. It therefore was chosen as the point of assem-
bly for the transports; but the great bond knitting to-
gether all the elements of streng^ was the Athenian navy.
224 NAVAL STRATEGY
This was the situation when, towards the year B. o. 418,
Athens determined upon the conquest of Syracuse, the
chief city of Sicily, as a prelude to the subjugation of the
whole island. Of the many motives leading to this serious
step, involving a reach over sea much exceeding any
previous attempt, we are here concerned only with the
military ; and but incidentally with them, as our attention
is called mainly to the expedition proper and not to the
whole war.
The military reasons for attacking Sicily were, first, the
fear that its Greek cities, being mainly colonies of a race
antagonistic to Athens, would join with their fleets in the
war then raging. If this fear was well founded, sound mil-
itaiy policy justified, nay, demanded, an attack in force
upon them before they were ready ; for, if a junction were
effected, they would seriously imperil the control of the
sea, upon which the safety of Athens depended. The condi-
tion much resembled that of 1807, when the British Govern-
ment seized the Danish fleet at Copenhagen, it having be-
come known that Napoleon, in understanding With the Czar,
proposed to compel the cooperation of the Danish navy in
his general naval policy. The second reason was that
Sicily, as fruitful then as in all ages, supplied the enemy
with wheat, even as Athens drew her grain supplies from
the Black Sea. The two together justified the undertaking
from a military standpoint, if there was strength enough to
succeed in it and to hold the chief seaports; and after
weighing the blunders of the Athenian commander-in-chief
as well as I can with an unavoidable lack of experience of
the sea difficulties of that day, I am persuaded the sea
power of Athens was equal to the task.
So much for the general military policy. Let us now
examine the conditions of the particular field in which this
expedition was to act.
Athens was on the side of Greece farthest from Sicily.
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 226
The PelopoDnesus, the teiritoiy of her opponents, lay be-
tween it and her. She held the islands Cytheia (Cerigo)
off the south of the peninsula and Corcyra on the west,
while by her sea power she controlled the other Ionian
Islands and occupied the seaports Naupactus and Pylus.
Along the south coast of Italy, which fleets would usually
follow, every city was hostile or unfriendly, until on the
Straits of Messina Rhegium was reached; but Tarentum
and Locri, at the two ends of this line, — the one at the
heel, the other at the toe of the boot of Italy, — were stren-
uously inimical. Messene, on the Straits of Messina, had
passed from one party to the other, but was now held
against Athens. Then came, on the east coast of Sicily,
three friendly cities, beyond which Syracuse, the first
objective, was reached. The misfortunes of the expedition
never allowed a thought of a farther step.
The choice of Syracuse as the objective wbb accurate.
It was the front and center, the foundation and keystone,
of the whole system of danger to Athens from the west-
em colonies. To strike at it direct was right, if the sea
strength of Athens was as great as the event showed. In
so doing, the expedition passed by the hostile strategic
points capable of sheltering an enemy's fleet ; but the leader
had reason to think that, if imaided, they would not dare
to act against him. He was right; their jealousy of Athens
refused help, beyond water and permission to anchor, but
no seacoast city dared to lift a hand against the power of the
sea. The Athenians thus cut loose from their base, having
force amply sufficient to crush Syracuse before help could
come, depending, with reason, upon their control of the
sea daunting the enemy cities near their communications.
In fact, these hostile ports, except Tarentum, finally allowed
the besiegers of Syracuse to be supplied from their mar-
kets, and thus became to them new bases of support, of
resources.
226 NAVAL STRATEGY
This was what did happen. What might have happened
— with the respectable though inferior fleet possessed by
Syracuse, and under the strategic conditionst added to the
tactical embarrassments inseparable from an expedition
composed of ships of war and transports— 'is admirably
set forth in a speech made by a Syracusan before the pop-
ular assembly of the city. This man, named Hermocrates,
proposed to make active use of the strategic position of
Tarentum, flanking the Athenian line of operations, by
sending thither a fleet which would either deter the enemy
by threatening his communications, or, if he persisted,
would act offensively against them and the fleet as oppor-
tunity arose, — Nelson's opportunity, too tempting to be
resisted. The speech of Hermocrates was as follows :
*^ There is one point more which, in my opinion, is more
critical and important than all the rest; and although,
inured as you are to domestic indolence, it may perhaps
not gain your ready approbation, I shall, however, boldly
recommend it. If all of us in general who are inhabitants of
Sicily, or at least if only we Syracusans, with what other
people we can get to assist us, would put out instantly to
sea with all the ships we have in readiness ; and, victualled
but for the space of two months, if we would then give
these Athenians the meeting either at Tarentum or at Cape
lapygia, and there convince them that before they enter the
lists of war for the conquest of Sicily they must fight for
their passage across the Ionian Sea, we would strike them
with the utmost terror. We would infinitely perplex them
with the thought that from a friendly port we sally forth
to guard our outworks, for Tarentum will readily receive
us ; while they have a long tract of sea to pass with their
cumbersome train, and must find it hard, through so long
a voyage, to be always steering in the regular order. As
their course must thus be slow, and must advance only in
exact conformity to order, we shall have a thousand opportu-
FOUNDATIONS AND PRTNCIPLES 227
nities to attack them. If, again, they clear their ships for
action and in a body bear down expeditiously upon us, they
must ply hard at their oars, and, when spent with toil, we
can fall upon them ; ^ or, in case fighting be not advisable,
we have it always in our power to retire into the harbor of
Tarentum.
^^ Thus, if the Athenians, in constant expectation of being
fought with at sea, make their passage with but a small
portion of their stores, they will be reduced to a great
distress upon coasts which will afford them no supply.
Should they choose to continue in their station," that is,
to remain in Corfu, ** they must be infallibly blocked up
in it ; should they venture a passage, they must unavoid-
ably leave their tenders and storeships behind," because
of the tactical embarrassment in the day of battle, ^* and as
they have no assurance of a hearty reception from the
cities of the coasts, must be terribly dismayed,'' for their
communications. ^ It is my firm opinion that, amidst the
great perplexity of thought which must result from these
obstructions, they will never presume to set sail from
Corcyra ; or, at least, while they are agitating the forms of
procedure and sending lookout vessels to discover our
numbers and positions, the season of the year will be pro-
tracted to winter/'
1 In the tactical ijttem of the Athenlanf , who were the most expert of
leamen, dependence was placed upon their mperior skill enabling them to
charge the tides of an enemy's ship with the bow of thehr own, — the strongest
part of a Tessel to the weakest For this manenrering the rowers needed to be
in full strength, — fresh. The Syracusans reinforced the bows of their galleys
abnormally, to meet bow to bow, like two eggs testing strength. Thehr inferior
skill could not insure this particular collision if the Athenian rowers, with
their lighter handling Teasels, were flresh. The Romani would not be af-
fected by the fatigue of rowers, if they could reach the enemy ; for then they
made fast, and the fighting men, who were fresh, fell on. All these partic-
ulars are tactical ; there is in each of them just as real tactical resource as
in the American navy replacing eighteen pounders by twenty-f oofs in 1800-
1812.
228 NAVAL STRATEGY
A farther detail, affecting naval operations in the field
of strategy as well as of tactics, is evidently deduciUe from
this speech ; namely, if the ancient fleets proposed to them-
selves to keep the sea for some time, as in this instance to'
make a straight coarse from Corcyra to Syracase, they were
forced to carry sach a weight of provisions and water as
brought them down in the water and rendered them slow
and difficult in maneuvering. In other words, the stra-
tegic consideration of the route to be followed, whether as
shorter or with reference to the friendly disposition of the
coast skirted, involved also the tactical question of the
efficiency of their fleets in the all-important point of speed
and turning power. The same thought applies to over-
loading with coal when within tactical reach of the enemy,
as Rozhestvensky did. It is also worth remarking that the
excessive labor of the oar necessitated for the oarsmen an
ample supply of nourishment, and especially of fluid in
warm weather.
The salient and decisive features, however, in the plan
of Hermocrates were : (1) The recognition of the strategic
value of Tarentum, flanking the route the enemy must
take, as do Jamaica, Gibraltar, Malta ; and (2) the use to
which he proposed to put this, by rapidly mobilizing the
Syracusan or Sicilian fleets, and massing them on the flank
of the Athenian line of advance in a position secured from
attack. Here was, first, a threat the enemy could scarely
venture to disregard ; and, secondly, the preparation of the
inferior navy for offensive action at a moment's notice,
and upon the weakest yet most vital link in the enemy's
scheme of operations.
In the proposition of Hermocrates, then, we have a true
and fruitful strategic thought, with the modification due to
tactical conditions, put forth two thousand years ago by a
man who never heard the words " strategy " or " tactics "
technically used, nor tried to formulate their laws. If,
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 229
however, any one is disposed to infer, from the accurate in-
sight of this untaught genius, the uselessness of studying
war as an art, he may be quickly set right by the coldness
and insult with which the speech was received, and the
vainglorious appeal to national self-sufficiency made by the
opposition orator ; a Orecian anticipation of ^* buncombe,"
which can be read in Thucydides. The advice was rejected
with contumely, the result being the unopposed progress of
the Athenians, and the consequent siege, suffering, and nar-
row escape of Syracuse, with the change of attitude before
mentioned in her friends, the Italian-Greek cities. How-
ever many and mixed the motives of the Syracusan assem-
bly, a knowledge of the principles of war might have given
the true policy a chance ; averting the ruin which nearly
overtook the city, and would have overwhelmed it but for
the imbecility of the Athenian general.
It should be added, however, that although the scheme of
Hermocrates was not only sound, but the very best fitted
to the conditions, it would not assure the certainty of
Syracuse's safety, because she was much the inferior
power. It was the most skilful thing to do; it secured
the most numerous chances ; but if the Athenian skill had
been equal, the stronger must in the end prevaiL Indeed,
the transfer of the Syracusan fleet to Tarentum, as con-
ceived by Hermocrates, illustrates aptly both the power and
the limitations of a ^^ fleet in being," of which we have
heard and still hear so much. Tarentum would have fixed
upon itself the Athenian attack, just because the hostile
navy was there ; as Port Arthur fixed the attention of the
Japanese, and Santiago that of the United States in 1898.
Syracuse would have been saved by the fleet, at least until
Tarentum fell. The momentary safety of Syracuse would
illustrate the influence of a ** fleet in being " ; its subjuga-
tion after the fall of Tarentum would show the limitations
of such a fleet, which, by definition, is inferior.
280 NAVAL STRATEGY
This episode in the Peloponnesian War, for in result it
proved to be no more, gives us all the conditions of a distant
maritime expedition in any age. We have the home base,
Athens; the advanced intermediate bases at Corcyra and
other points, which played for Athens the part that Gib-
raltar, Malta, and foreign coaling stations have done and
still do for Oreat Britain; the objective, Syracuse; the
neutral, doubtful, or hostile country to be passed, across
the Ionian Sea or along the coasts of Italy ; the enemy's
advanced post in Tarentum and sister cities ; the greater
naval power in Athens ; the smaller but still respectable
fleet of Syracuse ; the difficulty of communications ; the
tactical embarrassment of a train of supply ships; the
tactical difficulty of ships deeply laden for a long voyage,
which exists in a degree to-day ; the tactical difficulty of
the fatigue of rowers, which has disappeared ; the wisdom
of meeting the enemy half way and harassing his progress ;
the danger of awaiting him at home on the defensive ; the
perception of a navy's true sphere, the offensive. All
these broad outlines, with many lesser details, are to be
found in this Athenian expedition, and most of them in-
volve principles of present application. In fact, put this
early galley expedition under a microscope and there is
seen realized the essential leading features of every mari-
time invasion.
The attempt of the Athenians, though overwhelmingly
disastrous in this issue, was justified, because they were by
far the superior naval power, and therefore had the prob-
ability of operating over a controlled sea.
The same cannot be said for Bonaparte's Egyptian expe-
dition of 1798.^ Without attempting to analyze the mingled
motives which determined the action of the French general,
it is probable that he was swayed largely by his disposition
to trust to the chances of war, as he so often did both before
^ See map facing page 260.
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 281
and after, and, for long, not in vain. Also, when the expe-
dition left Toulon, there were but three British ships-of-the-
line in the Mediterranean, while even of their presence he
may well have been ignorant There was, therefore, a veiy
reasonable preponderance of chances that the landing could
be effected before an interrupting force could come up.
Once on shore he was not wholly unjustified in relying for
further progress upon the resources of the conquered coun-
tiy and upon his own unsurpassed powers for war and
organization; and there seems reason to believe that, by
adopting for the fleet a course analogous to that recom-
mended by Hermocrates, he might greatly have increased
the perplexities of the British admiral, and by so far his
own chances of success.
His foot firmly planted in Egypt, Bonaparte, having com-
passed his first objective and so far accomplished his offen-
sive purpose, necessarily passed, as to Great Britain, to the
defensive with an inferior navy. This was precisely the
position of Syracuse in relation to Athens, and the question
may be considered, ^* What use should he have made of his
fleet?" Having supreme command of it as well as of the
army, this care was constantly in his mind There were
many considerations, political and administrative, that must
justiy have influenced him ; but from the purely military
point of view his decision appears to have been about the
worst possible.
(rood communication with home was the one thing neces-
sary to his final success ; nay, to the very existence of the
French army in Egjrpt. There was no doubt of its ability
to subdue Egyptian opposition ; but it was bound to suffer
losses by batUe and disease, and if it advanced, as it must,
there was further loss by unavoidable dissemination of
forces. The numbers needed frequent reinforcement.
Certain supplies also must come from home, such as
ammunition of all kinds and equipments for war, not to
282 NAVAL STRATEGY
speak of the moral effect upon the army of finding itself
cut off from any probable hope of returning to France.
There was, too, the possibility that the fleet, under favoiv
able circumstances, might cooperate with the army; as,
indeed, frigates did a few months later in the Syrian
expedition.
The danger that threatened all this was the British fleet.
No port nor number of ports along the line — as, for in-
stance, Malta, which the French held — could keep com-
munications open if that fleet were left untrammeled in its
movements. It was now known to be in number approach-
ing that of the French, although the French admiral con-
tinued in a state of blissful confidence about his power to
resist it.
Criticism, always wise after an event, condemns as
visionary Bonaparte's attempt upon Egypt, as it also has
that of the Athenians against Syracuse. Having paid
some attention to the matter, my own opinion is that,
though the probabilities were rather against his success
than for it, there were chances enough in his favor to jus-
tify the attempt. Much military criticism consists simply
in condemning risks which have resulted in failure. One
of the fii'st things a student of war needs to lay to heart
is Napoleon's saying, ^* War cannot be made without running
risks." The exaggerated argument about the *^ fleet in
being " and its deterrent effect upon the enemy is, in effect,
assuming that war can and will be made only without
risk. • What a risk was run by General Grant when he went
below Vicksburg, against which Sherman remonstrated so
earnestly, or by Farragut when he passed the forts below
New Orleans, leaving them in control of the river behind
him.
The orders of Bonaparte were clear and precise, that the
ships of war should be taken into the old port of Alexan-
dria, if there was water enough on the bar; if not, the
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 288
admiral was to go to Corfu, then in possession of the
French, or to Toulon. These orders looked first to
the safety of the fleet; and next to keeping it, if possible,
under Bonaparte's own controL The retention in Alexan-
dria was open to two objections: the first, tactical in
character, was that the fleet, though perfectly safe, could
be easily blockaded there, and could with difficulty come
out and form in the face of an active enemy; while,
secondly, there was the strategic inconvenience that its
presence there would draw the British fleet to the pre-
cise point where transport ships and supplies from France
must converge. The French navy, in taking this position,
would give up entirely its special properties, mobility and
the offensive, — which Hermocrates was so careful to
insure, — and for the purpose of keeping open communica-
tions with home would be as useless as it became after the
Battle of the Nile. It is truthfully remarked by a French
naval officer that, with the difficulty of exit, a fleet in
Alexandria could be checked by an inferior force, which
could fall on the head of the column as it came out of the
narrow entrance.
The admiral disobeyed these orders, and for the worse.
He anchored near Alexandria in an open roadstead, pre-
senting to an enemy's attack no difficulties except hydro-
graphic; and his dispositions to strengthen the defense
were slothful and faulty. The question of engaging the
enemy under way or at anchor was discussed in a council
of war, where it was decided to await them at anchor ;
and the line of anchorage was established with that view.
This decision, which, it will be noted, was tactical, not
strategic, was as unfaithful to the true r61e of the navy as
were the orders of Bonaparte for its strategic disposition.
Tactically, the fleet was devoted by its commander to a
passive defensive, giving up its power of motion, of ma-
neuver, and of attack. Strategically, Bonaparte, in this
284 NAVAL STRATEGY
case, was relying upon the deterrent effect of the ^ fleet in
being '* upon Turkey.
It is, however, generally admitted that a strategic &iult
is more far-reaching than one of tactics, and that a tactical
success will fail of producing its full effect if the strategic
dispositions have been bad. We may therefore listen our
attention upon the strategic error. Had the result of the
Battle of the Nile been favorable to the French, and the
fleet been afterwards withdrawn into Alexandria according
to Bonaparte's orders, there would have been no positive
gain to the Egyptian expedition. In the supposed case,
the French fleet would have gained an advantage over the
British navy by inflicting upon an isolated detachment a
certain loss, perhaps even a disabling loss ; but the purpose
of Bonaparte to keep it under his own hand at Alexandria
would have rendered the success futile, because, wherever
the French fleet was, it drew an equivalent British detach-
ment with the force of a magnet, and before Alexandria
such a detachment was in the most &vorable position to
intercept supplies coming from France.
Granting that the strategic disposition proposed was
faulty, to what use should the fleet be put?
It is in a case of this kind that the helpfulness of prin-
ciples clearly and strongly held is felt It is a very
narrow reading of the word " principle " to confine it to
moral action. Sound military principle is as useful to
military conduct as moral principle is to integrity of life.
At the same time it must be conceded that the application
of a principle to a particular case is often difficult, in war
or in morals.
If the principle is accepted upon which Hermocrates
acted, perhaps imconsciously, that the part of the navy in
a defensive operation is to stand ready for immediate offen-
sive action, and to threaten it, it is seen at once that a
provision which looked only to its safety, while neutraliz-
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 286
ing its power of movement, such as shutting it up in Alex-
andria, was probably erroneous. If found there by the
British fleet, it was caught in a vise.
If not in Alexandria, then where? Bonaparte named
two alternative ports, Corfu and Toulon. As regards
these, (1) the fleet could not have been shut up in either
as easily as in Alexandria ; (2) a larger force would have
been needed to keep it in ; and (8) a fleet employed in do-
ing so would have been less able to stop the French com-
munications with Egypt. At Toulon, it is true, the British
fleet would have been at the strategic point whence supplies
would in most cases start ; but it is easier to get out of a
blockaded port than into it, while, as for shutting up a
large fleet, it was difficult for an enemy to keep close to
Toulon in winter.
Corfu, however, Bonaparte's third alternative, offered
very distinct and decisive advantages as a position over
Toulon. A British fleet watching off that island would
have been far removed from the direct route between
Toulon and Egypt, — over three hundred miles, two days'
sail at least, not to speak of the difficulty of receiving
intelligence. The office of the navy as accessory to a de-
fensive position, such as was that of the French in Egypt
relatively to Great Britain, is to keep open communications
by acting, or threatening to act, upon the offensive. This
can only be done through its power of movement on the
open sea, and by assuming an initiative suited to its
strength whenever opportunity offers ; for the initiative is
the privilege of the offense. Keeping communications open
on a given line means either drawing or driving the enemy
off it. If not strong enough to drive him off, then diver-
sion must be attempted, — by threatening his interests else-
where and in as many quarters as may be, seeking to
mislead him continually by all the wiles known to warfare.
As with war in general, this is a business of positions, and
286 NAVAL STRATEGY
consequently the chief station of a force destined to exert
such influence is a matter of prime importance. Corfu,
though not without its drawbacks, fulfilled the conditions
better than any other port then under French control,
because the mere presence there of a French squadron de-
tained the enemy's fleet so far from the vital line of com-
munications. Malta, on the contrary, like Toulon, would
haye fixed the enemy on the yery road which it was desir-
able to keep open.
Drawing away, or diverting, assumes that strength is
inferior to the enemy's, as was then the case with the
French navy, as a whole, relatively to the British. If,
however, though weaker in the aggregate, you are stronger
than a particular detachment encountered, it should be
attacked at once, before reinforced. Such weak detach-
ments commonly result from an enemy's fears for his
exposed points; as, for instance, Brueys, as mentioned
already, wished to make a detachment from his main
fleet, because he feared for the safety of the troops from
Civita Vecchia. Therefore the aim of the weaker party
should be to keep the sea as much as possible ; on no
account to separate his battleships, but to hold them to-
gether, seeking by mobility, by frequent appearances, which
unaided rumor always multiplies, to arouse the enemy's
anxieties in many directions, so as to induce him to send
off detachments ; in brief, to occasion what Daveluy calls
a *' displacement of forces " unfavorable to the opponent.
If he make this mistake, either the individual detachments
will be attacked one by one, or the main body, if unduly
weakened.
These movements are all of a strategic character or aim.
If, as a result of them, a collision is effected with a part of
the enemy's forces, — say in the proportion to your own of
two to three, — a strategic advantage will have been
achieved. In the action that should then follow the aim
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 287
will be to increase this advantage of numbers by concen-
trating as two to one, or at least in some degree of superi-
ority on part of the enemy's ships. This, however, belongs
to the province of tactics, or, more accurately, grand
tactics.
Let us now apply these principles to the probabilities in
the case before us. The facts were as follows: Nelson
first appeared before Alexandria on June 28th, 1798, three
days before Bonaparte. Not finding the French fleet there,
he supposed he had mistaken its destination and hurried
back to the Straits of Messina, anxious about Naples and
Sicily. If during the month of July, while he was thus
away, the French fleet had sailed as is here advocated.
Nelson, on returning, would have found the following
state of things : The French army ashore with its supplies
out of reach ; the transports and frigates in the port of
Alexandria, equally inaccessible; and the enemy's fleet
gone, on what errand of mischief he could not telL To
remain there with his whole force would be useless. To
follow with his whole force would be correct by all prin-
ciples; but if he did so, he left Alexandria open. The
temptation to leave a blockading detachment, say two
ships (he had then no frigates), would be very great.
Alexandria, however, was not the only port in the power
of France and connected with the whole system of her
Mediterranean control. At this moment she held firmly
both Toulon and Malta ; and Corfu with a grip which later
on resisted for a certain time the attack of the combined
Turkish and Russian squadrons. It was a matter of im-
portance to her enemies that she should not strengthen
herself in Malta and Corfu. All these four points, Toulon,
Malta, Alexandria, and Corfu, therefore claimed the atten-
tion of Great Britain; yet all could not be effectually
watched, so as to break up the communications with
Egypt, without a dividing of Nelson's fleet which would
288 NAVAL STRATEGY
have made each fragment hopelessly weak. This was ex-
emplified a year later, in 1799, when the incursion of the
Brest fleet into the Mediterranean, before alluded to, found
the British thus divided.^ To the power of distraction
thus in the hands of France is to be added the unprotected
condition of England's allies or friends in Naples, Sicily,
and Sardinia ; sJl of which were open to attack from
the sea. In short, the French fleet, until cornered, was
facilitated in any operations it might undertake by the
possession of several secure ports of refuge, well spaced
and situated ; and had besides large power to inflict injury,
and to exact contributions and supplies from states com-
mitted to the side of Great Britain. Onl^ a half-dozen
years earlier the squadron of Latouche Tr^viUe had com-
pelled such acquiescence from the kingdom of Naples at
the cannon's mouth.
It will be seen, therefore, that so long as the French had
in the Mediterranean, ready for action, a compact body of
thirteen serviceable ships-of-the-line, the number engaged
at the Nile, a force slightly superior to Nelson's own,
besides frigates, Nelson's fleet had several different objects,
all of importance, demanding his attention. There were
the four hostile ports just mentioned, the enemy's commu-
nications to Egypt, and the protection of Great Britain's
allies. Besides all this there was the additional object,
the French fleet. There can be little doubt that the genius
of Nelson would have led him straight for the enemy's
fleet, the true key to such a strategic situation. But not
every admiral is a Nelson ; and even he could not have
stopped the communications effectually before he had found
and beaten the fleet After the battle of the Nile Nelson's
ships scattered: some to Naples, some to Malta, some
to Gibraltar, some before Alexandria. Such a dispersal
i See *' Inflaence of Sea Power upon French BeTolation and Empire,"
ToL i, p. 904.
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 289
shows sufficiently the exigencies of the general situation,
but it would have been simply insane under the present
supposition of thirteen French ships of the line compact
in Corfu. In the positions taken afterwards, each of the
small British detachments named did good service, and in
perfect safety, having the enemy's fleet off their minds.
But if, instead of being at sea in the Mediterranean or
in port at Corfu, the French fleet had been safely moored
in the harbor of Alexandria, Nelson's task would have been
simpler. The blockade of that port would have settled the
communications and left him perfectly easy as to the fate
of Naples and Sicily. Toulon lost most of its importance
with the British fleet thus placed across the path of any
reinforcements it might send; and Nelson from his four-
teen ships could safely have spared two, if not three, for
the blockade of Malta, which, however, could have been
maintained by frigates. It will be remembered that in
Alexandria the French fleet labored under the tactical dis-
advantage of having to come out by a passage narrow,
so far as sufficiency of water was concerned, while the out-
siders, during the summer, had a fair wind with which to
appi*oach. In other words, the French fleet would have to
come out in column, in &ce of a resolute enemy able to de-
ploy his vessels across its head and to fall upon the leading
ships in detail
It may be objected that the quality of the French fleet
was so inferior that the suggested use of it as a cruising
squadron could end only in disaster. There is some truth
in such a statement ; and there were also political and ad-
ministrative reasons, as already admitted. If engaged in
a criticism upon the management of the French navy under
Bonaparte in its entirety, full weight would have to be
allowed to these considerations. Using the case, however,
simply as an illustration of strategy, as is here done, it is
permissible to disregard them ; to assume, as must be done
240 NAVAL STRATEGY
in an abstract military problem, a practical equality, where
numerical equality is found. None but a hopeless doctri-
naire would deny that circumstances powerfully modify the
application of the most solid general principles ; yet prin-
ciples are elicited only by eliminating from a number of
cases those conditions which are peculiar to each, so that
the truth common to all becomes clear.
As r^^ards the particular effect upon Nelson of such a
use of tiie French fleet as here advocated, it must be re-
membered by us, who now see things with the &cility of
what our American slang calls ^ hind-sight," that if ever
Nelson lost his head, was ^^ rattled," it was when he at his
first visit found the French not in Alexandria ; and after
all was over, he spoke most dejectedly of the state of his
health, induced by ** the fever of anxiety " through which
he had passed. We now may dismiss lightly the contin-
gencies here suggested ; that great seaman felt their pres-
sure and knew their weight. Besides, it may be said that
if Nelson had missed the French twice more, or a few
weeks longer, he might have lost his command, so great
was the popular clamor over his first &ilure; and there
was scarcely another British admiral at that time fitted to
deal decisively with an equal enemy. Napier estimates
the presence of Napoleon on a battlefield as equal to
thirty thousand men ; and it is no exaggeration to say that
Nelson, for thorough dealing with an enemy's fleet, was
equal to a reinforcement of three ships-of-the-line. The
mere success of the French fleet in dodging pursuit and
raising alarm might have cost Great Britain her most
efficient sea-commander.
It may be further interesting to note that the course
recommended by Hermocrates, and here suggested for the
French fleet, is identical in principle with certain well-
known instances in land warfare. When the allied Aus-
trians, British, and Dutch were falling back through
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 241
Belgium before the yictorious advance of the French in 1794,
upon reaching a certain point they separated; the Anglo-
Dutch retreating upon Holland, with the vain thought of
coyering it by direct interposition, while the Austrians
took the road to Germany. Jomini Q^ Guerres de la R^pub-
lique ") shows that if, instead of this folly of separating,
they had massed their entire force in a well-chosen position
coyering their communications with Germany, and to one
side of the line leading to Holland, which was the objectiye
of the French, the latter could not dare to pass them, leav-
ing their communications open to attack. They must have
stopped and fought a pitched battle upon ground of their
enemy's own choosing before they could touch Holland.
This again, in 1800, was the principle dictating Bona-
parte's order to Mass^na to throw a heavy garrison into
Genoa. The Austrians could not pass by it, could not
advance in full force along the Riviera against southern
France, while tliat garrison flanked their line of communi-
cation. They were compelled to mask the place with a
large detachment, the withdrawal of which from the main
body vitally affected the campaign. This again, in 1808,
was the real significance of Sir John Moore's &mous ad-
vance from Portugal upon Sahagun in Spain.^ The threat
to the French communications arrested Napoleon's advance,
postponed the imminent reduction of Spain, gave time for
Austria to ripen her preparations, and entailed upon the
emperor, in place of a rapid conquest, the protracted wast-
ing Peninsular War, with its decisive ultimate effects upon
his fortunes. Napier shrewdly says that his own history
might never have been written if Moore had not made the
move he did.
But let it be remembered always that the strength of such
dispositions lies not in the inanimate fortresses so much as
in the living power of the men, troops or seamen, whose
1 See map faciog pege 248.
242 NAVAL STRATEGY
purposes they subserve. To use Napoleon's phrase, ** War
is a business of positions," but not so much on account of
the positions themselves as of the men who utilize them.
Of tiiis, the uselessness of Malta to the French in 1798-
1800 is a conspicuous example. It flanked the line of com-
munications from the West to the Levant ; but, there being
no fleet in the port, the position was useless, except as
engaging the attention of a small British blockading force.
CHAPTER X
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES
Opbratioks of Wab
THE last lecture began with some carsory re-
marks on the subject of maritime expeditions
in general, and then was illustrated by two
special historical cases of such expeditions.
The length to which this illustrative digression went
makes it necessary to recall that the question leading to it
was this : What is the true strategic use to be made of the
naval force when the key to a maritime region, or any
advanced position of decisive importance in such a region,
has been won by a combined expedition? The answer
given was that, when such a success had been won, the par-
ticular expedition, having next to secure and preserve that
which had been gained, passes from the offensive, with which
it started, to the defensive, and that the true part for the
navy to bear in such a defensive is the offensive-defensive.
When the first objective is possessed, the navy, heretofore
tied to the rest of the expedition, is released, the army
assumes the defense of the conquest, or the further prosecu-
tion of the conquest, and the fleet takes charge of the com-
munications, and so of its own element, the sea. But it can
fulfill such a charge only by either driving or drawing the
enemy's sea force away from the region in dispute or from
the critical point of the campaign. If stronger, it will
seek, and if possible compel, a battle ; if weaker, it will
try to draw the enemy away and to divide his forces by
threatening other strategic points or vital interests. It
should be noted that this is precisely the function of a
244 NAVAL STRATEGY
navy in relation to the defense of the home coast-line, if
the nation be reduced to a naval defensive for the war.
The Emperor Napoleon in the early part of 1812 dis-
cussed a somewhat similar situation in land warfare, in a
letter of instructions sent to Marshal Marmont, command-
ing in Spain that part of the French forces which lay about
Salamanca and in face of the fortress Ciudad Rodrigo.^
This, strong though it was, the British under Wellington
had recently captured by an operation which in its swift-
ness resembled rather a coup de main than a siege. Western
Spain, bordering Portugal, was a region which tiie French
had seized and &om which the British sought to dislodge
them ; for the French at this period were reduced to a de-
fensive attitude in Spain, owing to the approaching war
with Russia, which had led the emperor to concentrate the
most and the best of the troops at his disposal upon the
great Russian expedition.
The borderland of Spain and Portugal thus corresponded
to our maritime region : belonging to neither party, occu-
pied by one, sought by the other. There were in it two
principal fortresses, answering to fortified seaports, — Ciu-
dad Rodrigo in the north and Badajoz in the south, both
of which had been occupied by the French. Upon the ten-
ure of these depended control of the region. By a rapid
movement Ciudad Rodrigo had been taken from them, as
just said. Badajoz had been threatened also ; it was one
of the two keys to the frontier, and now the only one re-
maining to France. Before the capture of Ciudad Rodrigo
it had been besieged in form for some time by Wellington,
taking advantage of the weakened condition of the French
army in consequence of a disastrous retreat from Portugal
the year before, 1811.
Marmont had succeeded to the command while Badajoz
was besieged, and before Ciudad Rodrigo fell. Collecting
^ See map fadng page 248.
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 246
his army in the field, his mobile force, corresponding to the
navy in sea warfare, he marched towards Badajoz. Well-
ington, unable to sustain both siege and battle, raised the
siege, retired into Portugal, and thence moved north of the
Tagus to Almeida, there and thus confronting Ciudad
Rodrigo, and watching. Marmont also returned to the
north, to Salamanca, and had he remained expectant, on a
concentrated defensiye, ready to act offensively if need be,
the presence of his force would have fixed that of Welling-
ton ; but he conceived the idea of sending help to a brother
marshal, Suchet, then besieging Valencia in the east. As
he moved south towards the Tagus, the British thought at
first that he intended to invade southern Portugal from
Badajoz ; but as soon as he detached his five thousand men
to the eastward Wellington recognized that south Portugal
was not threatened. He saw also that north Spain had
been stripped momentarily of effective French force, for
Marmont had sent with the detachment a large part of his
artillery and cavalry. Then the British swooped down
upon Ciudad Rodrigo, carried and garrisoned it before the
field army — the navy — could come to its support The
chance was close, and therefore the place was stormed
before the time was ripe by the rules of the engineer's art.
** Ciudad Rodrigo mvst be stormed to-night," read Well-
ington's orders ; and his army understood the appeal to its
courage to indicate the near return of the French relieving
force.
It is to the general situation hence resulting that Napo-
leon's letter of instructions applies. He writes to Marmont,
^ Tour army being now strone, equipped again with siege
artillery, and restored in marcUe as well as numbers, it is
no longer necessary, in order to protect Badajoz, that you
march upon it. Keep your army in divisions around Sala-
manca, spread out sufficiently for ready subsistence, but at
such distances that all can unite in two marches ; " that is,
246 NAVAL STRATEGY
in two days. ^^ Make all your dispositions such that it
may be understood you are preparing to take the offensive,
ana keep up a continual demonstration by outpost engage-
ments. In such an attitude you are master of all the Brit-
ish movements. If Wellington undertakes to march upon
Badaioz, let him go; concentrate your troops at once,
march straight upon Almeida, and you may be sure he will
quickly return to encounter you. But he understands his
business too well to commit such a fault."
You have here the French army in the field, the mobile
force corresponding to a navy, protecting its acquired post,
Badajoz, by detaining the enemy's field army ; that is, by
drawing it away, or keeping it drawn away, from the posi-
tion which it had shown its wish to capture. In the first
instance, Badajoz had been saved by Marmont's approach,
driving Bwekj Wellington. In the second, Ciudad Rodrigo
was lost by misdirection and dissemination of Marmont's
force ; the British army in the field snatched away an im-
portant position. In the third, Badajoz is protected, not
by direct action, but by the indirect effect of a sustained
diversion menacing interests which the British could not
afford to neglect.
The same method of diversion was projected on a gigantic
scale by the Emperor Napoleon in 1804 and 1805, when he
wished to draw away a large proportion of the British fleet
from Europe, and in their absence to concentrate his own
navy in the English Channel, to cover the descent upon
Great Britain. It will be remembered that France during
this period was on the defensive as regards its coast-line.
By his formulated plan the fleets from Toulon, Rochefort,
and Brest were all to escape from their ports, to meet in the
West Indies, and to return in a body to the ChanneL It
was expected that the British would pursue, be bafiSed by
their imcertainty as to the destination of the French, and
that the latter would reach Europe again far enough in
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 247
advance tx> oontrol the Channel for some days. The plan
failed through various causes. The British commander-in-
chief before Toulon, Nelson, did follow the Toulon fleet to
the West Indies ; but, though starting a month later than
it, the better quality of the British fleet enabled him to get
back first, contrary to the Emperor's calculations. Nor
could Napoleon reckon upon the singular insight with which
Nelson at Antigua divined that ViUeneuve had returned to
Europe ; so that, having left the Straits of Gibraltar thirty-
one days after the allies, he sailed upon his return thither
only four days later than they, and got back a week before
they entered FerroL
I may add that, besides the principal diversion by his
fleets assembling in the West Indies, Napoleon's corre-
spondence at that time is full of schemes for enticing the
British squadrons away from the Bay of Biscay and the
Channel.
Jt will be observed that the French fleet, going in this
instance to the West Indies, was intended to produce and
did produce just that effect, which its going to Corfu would
have produced upon conditions in the Mediterranean, in the
case discussed in the last lecture. The British fleet was
drawn in pursuit to the West Indies ; that is, far from the
Straits of Dover, the strategic center of Napoleon's plans,
the critical point of the campaign, as Corfu was remote
from Alexandria and from the line of communications
between that port and France. If Nelson had been an
average commander he would have remained in the West
Indies until he had tangible evidence that the French fleet
had left them. This is no surmise. Many strongly urged
him so to remain ; the weight of opinion was against him ;
but he possessed that indefinable sagacity which reaches
just conclusions through a balancing of reasoning without
demonstrable proof. If he had remained until he got re-
liable information, the result would have been twenty allies
248 NAVAL STRATEGY
in Europe to support Napoleon's concentration, and the
British concentration weakened by Nelson's dozen, — a total
difference of thirty ships-of-the-line.
I will here draw your attention to the fact that Napoleon's
plan in this case was very similar to, and apparently derived
from, one elaborated in 1762 by the French prime minister
of that period.^ Napoleon probably knew of this from the
French archiyes ; but it is unlikely that Nelson did.
Whichever of the above-mentioned two courses the navy
has to adopt, — driving away or drawing away, — it must
again be noted that it is on the defensive as to the general op-
erations, but on the offensive as to its own actions. This, it
may be further noted, is exactly what Napoleon prescribed
to Marmont. *^ The turn which the general affairs of Europe
have taken," he writes, ^^ compels the Emperor to renounce
for this year the expedition against Portugal," that is, an
offensive campaign. Therefore he prescribes a general de-
fensive attitude, but one carrying o£fensive menace'; in order
thereby to protect Badajoz, and to secure the line of com-
munications from France to Madrid, which Salamanca
covered, but which Sir John Moore three years before had
threatened with such disastrous effect to Napoleon's own
plans, drawing him away from his strategic center, the
critical point of the campaign, at a moment vital to his
success.
Now, such conditions of things, as regards a conquest
actual or supposed, precisely illustrates also the relation of
the navy to home defense. In both cases the nation, being in
actual possession, is in so far on the defensive ; but if, from
necessity or by a mistaken policy, it keeps its navy also on
the defensive within its ports or tied to them, it abandons
to the enemy its commerce and its communications with
abroad. This was what the United States perforce did in
1812, having no navy to send abroad, except as commerce
1 Ck>rbett, " Seren Yeari' War," toI. ii, pp. 802-907.
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 249
destroyers. Such an abandonment will not necessarily lead
to ruin, especially if the country be large, so as to be able
to depend on internal resources, or have on its land frontiers
neutral nations through whom a roundabout trade may be
carried on. Neither will it altogether lose commerce in
neutral bottoms, if its coast be too long for effective block-
ade ; but it will suffer both humiliation and material loss,
which a great nation should not risk. The true comple-
ment of any scheme of home coast defense is a navy strong
enough either to drive the hostile fleet away from one's own
shores or to keep it away by adequate threats to hostile
interests. So used, a navy is unquestionably the best of
coast defenses.
In this connection, because here entirely pertinent, I wish
to introduce a comment which I shall develop at length in
a later lecture ; namely, that seacoast fortresses should not
be thought, as they usually are, to be primarily defensive in
function. Seacoast works, the office of which is limited
to keeping hostQe ships at a distance, but which are open
on the land side, may be defensive merely ; but a properly
fortified port, capable of giving security to a navy, is de-
fensive only as is a fortress, like Metz or Mayence, which
contains an army able to take the field, and thereby com-
pels the enemy to maintain before the place a detachment
sufficiently strong to arrest any offensive action possible to
the garrison.
Even our feeble War of 1812 yielded an illustration of
this offensive character of a port capable of sheltering a
squadron. The squadron of Commodore John Bodgers, in
New York, was a garrison capable of acting offensively;
and it did so. The British knew it had sailed in a com-
pact body, but with what intentions they did not know.
Consequently, their squadron on the American coast being
small, they had to keep their ships together, lest one alone
should encounter that squadron. This enforced concen-
250 NAVAL STRATEGY
tration, coupled with the necessity for the British to
protect their own trade, left the American ports so loosely
watched that the greater part of the returning American
merchant vessels arrived safely. This defensive result
was intended, and was obtained, by Rodgers' offensive
cruise, the credit of which, in conception and in execution,
belongs almost wholly to him. The sustained exertion of
such offensive action depends upon ports capable of pro-
tecting the fleet. Otherwise it is destroyed, as at Port
Arthur; or driven out, as at Santiago.
In this direction also we may seek a proper comprehen-
sion of what the size of a navy should be. It should be so
great, and its facilities for mobilization and for maintenance
of supplies should be such, that a foreign country contem-
plating war should feel instant anxiety because of the
immediate danger that would arise from that navy, either
to itself, or to its dependencies, or to its commerce. Such
effect would be deterrent of war ; and to deter is simply to
practice diversion in another form. This has been an-
nounced, with military brevity and emphasis, as the o£Bcial
purpose of the German government in its naval programme
adopted in 1900. ** Germany must have a fleet of such
strength that, even for the mightiest naval Power, a war
with Germany would involve such risks as to' jeopardize its
own supremacy," Unhappily this purpose, when effected
as towards Great Britain, will leave the United States far
in the rear of Germany as a naval power.
It has been assumed, as a principle of strategy in refer-
ence to any theater of war, that the controlling point or
system of points — the key of the situation, to repeat the
familiar phrase — should be the objective of any offensive
movement. It has also been stated in terms that the ad-
vance, or front of operations, should be pushed forward as
far as can be done consistently with that closely linked
communication, between all the parts, which binds the
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 251
system into a whole. The reason is, that all within such a
system, or in rear of such a front of operations, being in
your control, is more useful to you than to the enemy;
more dangerous to him than to you. This increases your
resources for the time being ; and if peace finds yon in such
possession, you have a vantage ground in that subsequent
bargaining which is usually and euphemistically styled
*^ negotiations for peace."
The supreme instance of such an advanced front of opera-
tions afforded by maritime warfare was the British block-
ade of the French and Spanish ports during the wars of the
French Revolution and Empire, 1793-1815. The British
fleets before the several ports, — Brest, Rochefort, Ferrol,
Cadiz, Toulon, — linked together by intermediate divisions
composed chiefly of cruisers, watching the smaller outlets
and scouring the adjacent sea, formed really a continuous
line or front of operations. The efficacy of such control
was evidenced by the security of the British Islands and
colonies, and of British trade upon the sea. The whole
ocean, the region in rear of this front of operations, was
secured against all but raiding. This was evidenced by
the smallness of the loss by British commerce, less than
three per cent of the total embarked ; and by the failure of
all the enemy's projects of invasion.
This advanced front held by fleets at sea corresponds
to a front held by armies in the field, when maintained by
virtue of their own superiority. It is evident, however,
that such advantages will be increased by the holding of
nearby fortified places. For example, when Bonaparte in
1796, in his advance against Austria, found himself held
up by the fortress of Mantua, flanking his necessary line of
advance, he took as his front of operations the line of the
Adige, with the fortress of Verona bestriding the river.
Verona was capable of withstanding a siege ; it could be
defended by relatively few men ; it secured stores therein
262 NAVAL STRATEGY
accumulated; it had also the moral prestige of strength,
and it assured the passage of the stream when necessary to
throw troops from one side to the other. All this was
additional to the force of the French army itself. Thus at
the battle of Areola Bonaparte ventured to leave Verona
with a very small garrison, while with the mass of his army,
by nighty he crossed the Adige lower down and struck
at the rear of the Austrian army advancing on Verona.
There was in this much risk and much bluff; but he was
successful, which he could only have been by the use of
the fortress. This served his army in the same manner
that a fortified seaport serves a navy which dares strike
outside in offensive-defensive action. By occupying this
position, and by the additional strength conferred by the
river and by Verona, prolonged to the north by Lake
Glarda, close along which the upper Adige flows, Bonaparte
controlled all the resources of the valley of the Po and of
south Italy, which lay behind ; just as Great Britain did
those of the ocean, by her fleets taking up the line of the
French coast.
This maritime Une likewise was strengthened by strong
places ; namely, by the home ports, Portsmouth and Ply-
mouth, and abroad by Gibraltar, Malta, Port Mahon, and
others. These were less open to attack than Verona was ;
and they afforded the local support of stores, of repairing,
of refitting. Also, in case of sudden irruption by an escap-
ing enemy's division they supplied refuge. Single ships
or inferior divisions could find security within them. In
addition to this defensive usefulness, such positions have
also offensive power because of their nearness to, and
thereby flanking, great lines of communication. Thus
Gibraltar and Malta flanked all lines through the Mediter^
ranean, Plymouth and Portsmouth through the Channel,
Jamaica through the Caribbean. Similarly Brest, Cadiz,
and so on flanked British lines to the southward; and
4 a
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 268
therefore, as well as for other reasons, had to be contained,
as Bonaparte had to contain Mantua.
Tnming now to the Caribbean Sea in its entirety, as a
region in which the United States might have occasion to
desire influence and to exert it, and supposing all the
islands at the outset to be in an enemy's possession, if
Cuba should pass into our hands we should control a very
important and useful position ; but we might still be far
from controlling thereby the whole sea. Assuming the
opposing naval forces at the beginning to approach equal-
ity, it probably would not yet be in our power to control
the whole. In that case the front of operations should be
pushed as far forward as possible. For instance, it might
be desirable to occupy Samana Bay and to control the
Mona Passage ; or, if strong enough, we might wish to push
our front, the line maintained by the battle-fleet, to the
southward and eastward, to harass the enemy and to pro-
tect the steamer routes through the Windward Passage to
the Isthmus, which routes, by this advance of our own
front, would lie in rear of our fleet.
Cuba, being now by the supposition ours, would cover
our rear towards the Gulf of Mexico, wherein is an im-
portant part of the home base of operations. The base of
the enemy may be, let us suppose, in the Lesser Antilles,
and the sea between, under the supposition of equal navies,
would be in dispute or in uncertain possession. The posi-
tion of the enemy's fleet and its bases would indicate the
direction of the next line of operations.
The enemy, being deprived of Cuba, whether by for-
tune of war or by original non-possession, might still hold
Jamaica, as well as certain ports of the Windward Islands.
This is the actual case of Great Britain, which holds Santa
Lucia and Jamaica. In such case the main interest of the
war would concentrate for the time around Cuba and
Jamaica, which would become the critical point of l^e oam-
254 NAVAL STRATEGY
paigzL The series of posts. Great Britain, Santa Lucia,
Jamaica, the Isthmus of Panama, would reproduce almost
exactly the other existing line, — Great Britain, Gibraltar,
Malta, the Isthmus of Suez. If the fleet at Jamaica
should be inferior to that at Cuba, the Cuban fleet by
taking position before Jamaica would intercept commu-
nications with the Windward Islands and reinforcements
from them, would cover its own communications with
Cuba and the United States, as well as the steamer routes,
and by all this action would press the fleet within to
battle, to relieve itself of these disadvantages. In this
case as in the other the position of the enemy's fleet and
his naval base indicate the direction of operations ; as Port
Arthur determined the direction of the Japanese naval war,
as well as much of the Japanese effort on land, and Santi-
ago that of the American fleet and army in 1898. The
consequent movements of the Japanese and the Americans
were a direct compulsion upon the Russians in the one
instance and the Spaniards in the other to fight, which each
avoided only by accepting fleet suicide.
Operations therefore should not cease with the occupa-
tion of the key. They should be pushed on untiringly;
but the same reasoning which, to assure the hold on the
key, prescribed the pursuit and destruction of the enemy's
fleet holds good for the further operations. It is perhaps
even more true of the sea than of the land that the proper
objective is not a geographical point, but the organized
military force of the enemy. Positions like Egypt and the
defile of the Danube are important, not only nor mainly
as inert masses of matter favorably placed, but because
from them masses of trained warriors or of armed ships
can act with such facility in different directions that they
are worth more than greater numbers less well situated.
The same is true of any place artificially fortified ; its chief
value is the facilitating the movements of the mobile forces.
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 255
Therefore, with the possession of the advantages which the
occupation of such positions confers comes the obligation
to use them. How? The answer to this question is given
in no doubtful manner by military writers. The organized
force of the enemy, that is, his active army in the field,
was the favorite objective of Napoleon, says Jomini.
Let it be supposed that you have seized such a strategic
position and driven the enemy's fleet, after more or less
fighting, off the theater of war in your rear and immediate
front. This means that your home communications are
secure, except from raiding, and that you have established
your naval superiority for the time being. If the enemy's
ships in an organized body, not as scattered cruisers, remain
within the limits of the given theater in front of your pres-
ent position, it wil] be because they still have points of
support and supply, upon which they can depend for sub-
sistence and to the defense of which they are necessary.
It is not supposable that otherwise they can keep the sea
within a restricted region; for the operations of coaling
and taking on board stores, although probably feasible at
sea if unmolested, could not go on with a superior fleet in
the neighborhood, kept informed of their movements by
watchful lookout ships and wireless telegraphy. Such
points of supply or bases, therefore, there must be, and they
indicate the direction of your next line of operations.
The usual great predominance of the British navy during
the maritime historical period most vivid in our recollec-
tions has prevented naval strategy from yielding as many
illustration in point as otherwS migh^ have been the
case. The control which this predominance perpetuated
over the communications between the enemy's bases and
any objective proposed by him dried up at the source all
other exhibitions of strategy, because communications, in
the full meaning of the term, dominate war. As an element
of strategy they devour all other elements. This usual
266 NAVAL STRATEGY
predominance of a single Power gave origin to a French
phrase of somewhat doubtful accuracy: La Mer ne eowr
parte qu^une seule mattresse. ^^The Sea brooks only one
mistress." This is superficially plausible; but if under-
stood to mean that the control of the sea is never in dis-
pute, the mastery never seriously contested, it is very
misleading. The control of the sea, even in general, and
still more in particular restricted districts, has at times
and for long periods remained in doubt; the balance in-
clining now to this side, now to that Contending navies
have ranged its waters in mutual defiance. This was con-
spicuously the case in the War of American Independence ;
to some extent also in the Seven Years' War, 1756-1768.
For instance, the attack upon Quebec and consequent
reduction of all Canada in 1759 demanded as a first step
the capture in 1758 of a fortress, — Louisburg, in Cape
Breton. By this, the French fleet, which previously had
gone back and forth, between France and Canada, in mass
or in big detachments, was deprived of a necessary base
of operations affecting the communications of the St.
Lawrence River.
During the period of the French Revolution and of
Napoleon, Great Britain was for most of the time sole
mistress of the seas; yet in 1796 she was compelled to
evacuate the Mediterranean. That limited area of the seas
— the Mediterranean — was the scene of a protracted naval
campaign with var}dng balance from 1793 to 1798, when it
was decided finally in favor of Great Britain by the Battle
of the Nile.^ It is worth while to trace the leading inci-
dents, for they illustrate the occurrence and the necessity of
just such steps as we have been considering ; thus proving
that the consideration is not academic merely, but springs
from the nature of things.
In 1793, the British fleet entered the Mediterranean,
1 See map facing page 200.
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 257
with the Spaniards as allies. Owing to the disloyalty of
southern France to the Revolutionary government^ an op-
portunity arose of obtaining possession of Toulon and its
fleet; and this determined the first objective and line of
operations of the allies. You will recall the importance
attached to the capture of Toulon by the great Duke of
Marlborough nearly ninety years before, and the strenuous
though abortive attempt of Prince Eugene in 1707 to ac-
complish this result.^ The occupation of Toulon would
paralyze at its source all French naval movement in the
Mediterranean, and upon naval movement depended in
great measure the land campaigns in northern Italy and
along the Riviera. In 1793, Toulon was delivered by treach-
ery ; the allied fleets entered the port and allied troops oc-
cupied the lines surrounding it. The British admiral wished
at once to seize or destroy the French squadron within,
thus striking at the enemy's organized force ; but this was
opposed by his Spanish colleague, an officer of former
wars, profoundly conscious and jealous of British naval
superiority, which this destruction would increase. The
British officer dared not chance the result of a rupture of
the alliance; and this political consideration saved the
French ships, most of which afterwards took part in the
Battle of the Nile. Without them Bonaparte's Egyptian
expedition could not have been started.
The French Government soon besieged Toulon, and the
clear sight of Bonaparte into a tactical situation led to the
seizure of a position from which batteries commanded
the fleets at anchor. Toulon was evacuated perforce. The
Spaniards retired to their ports ; and the British, by the
loss of the place itself, were compelled now to take the step
which usually comes first. They had to obtain an advanced
position, for refit and repair, for accumulation of stores, —
in a word, a local base, — from which to control Toulon
1 Ante, page 97.
258 NAVAL STRATEGY
and support Austrian operations on the Riviera. This
they had been able to neglect hitherto only through the
chance which had placed Toulon itself in their hands. For
a brief moment they took position in Hydros Bay, close to
Toulon ; but this was too near the mainland, too open to a
repetition of the occurrences which had driven them from
Toulon* Consequentiy they moved their advanced base
to San Fiorenzo Bay, a harbor in the north of Corsica.
This, with other ports of the island, they were enabled to
occupy through the momentary disaffection of the inhabit-
ants to France.
This advanced position they held, and garrisoned to an
extent which was sufficient so long as the islanders sided
with them. The waters between Corsica and Toulon and
Genoa became a debatable ground, in which the British
upon the whole predominated, but which could not be
said to be in their undisputed controL The neighboring
sea had perhaps only one mistress, but that mistress was
not without a rivaL The case is that of our supposed
fleets, resting, one upon Cuba, the other on Santa Lucia or
Martinique. Two fleet actions were fought with the Tou-
lon ships in 1795 ; neither decisive. From San Fiorenzo
as a base, operations were maintained along the Riviera,
the ultimate objective of operations, in support of the
Austrian advance against France ; but here also nothing
conclusive was effected. From 1794 to and including the
first half of 1796 there was a perpetual conflict; resting
on one side upon Toulon, on the other upon Gibraltar and
upon the advanced base which the British had seized at
San Fiorenzo. Concerning this period, Nelson some yeara
after affirmed that, if the British admiral had been efficient,
the French could not have maintained the forward position
which they did. This, if accurate, means that when Bona-
parte in April, 1796, took command of the army of Italy,
he would have found the Austrians so far advanced, and
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 269
the British navy in such control of the shore line from
Nice to Genoa, that his plan of campaign must have been
different. His very first movement^ by which he struck in
between and separated once for all the Austrians from
their Piedmontese allies, was possible, only because the
British and Austrian neglect of opportunities allowed him
at the beginning to be at Savona, far in advance of Nice.
Also, but for this, his communications, as well for troops
— reinforcements — as for supplies and for ammunition,
would have depended upon a very difficult land trans-
port, with wretched roads, instead of the facile water route,
following a coast-line bristling with French batteries.
Tou observe here the ultimate objective, northern Italy
and the Riviera, the occupation of which by the allies of
Great Britain wotild menace Toulon ; you recognize also
the intermediate objective, San Fiorenzo, essential for the
maintenance of the British naval operations. Those opera-
tions thus constituted Nelson declared would have been
successful under competent leadership. Ample time, two
years, was afforded. Then came Bonaparte. With the
advantages left in his hands, and by his own masterly man-
agement, in two months he had routed the Austrians and
waa on the Adige and in Verona. West and south of this
position all opposition to him fell to pieces. The whole
shore line of north Italy became French ; and through its
ports numerous French partisans passed in small boats to
Corsica, stiffening there the disaffection to the British,
which had begun already. At the same moment Spain,
swayed largely by Bonaparte's victories, passed into alli-
ance with France. A junction followed of the fleets of
the two countries. Their organized naval forces, of which
the detachment spared at Toulon was an important element,
were combined. In &tce of this odds the British felt com-
pelled to abandon their advanced position, and withdrew
their fleet to Gibraltar, whence it further fell back upon Lisbon.
260 NAVAL STRATEGY
This movement of the oi^ganized force of the British
navy was not molested by the allied fleets, which also sep-
arated soon after; the Spaniards going to Cartagena, the
French to Toulon. The Spaniards then attempted to take
their ships to Cadiz. The British admiral put to sea and
met them off Cape St. Vincent Though very inferior in
numbers, he knew the superiority of his ships in quality.
^ A victory is ve^ necessary for England," he was heard
to say ; and, the Spaniards offering him a tactical ^^ oppor-
tunity,'* he fought and beat them. They retired into Cadiz,
where the British shut them up by a blockade, the force of
which was largely increased from home, in order to permit
a detachment from it against the expedition rumored to be
fitting out in Toulon. This detachment was entrusted
to Nelson, who found the thirteen ships of the French
off the coast of Egypt, where he annihilated them at the
Battle of the Nile, in 1798. The organized Mediterranean
naval force of France and Spain, having &iled to utilize its
opportunity when mistress of the northern Mediterranean,
and having separated into two bodies, was thus beaten in
detail, and the whole Mediterranean passed into British
control for the rest of the war. Bonaparte having already
compelled Austria to peace, in 1797, there were no longer
any Austrian operations that the British fleet could assist ;
but its own front, dictated by the necessities of the time,
ran from Gibraltar to Minorca, which had been seized by
the commander-in-chief at Gibraltar when he received the
news of the Nile, thence to Sicily and Naples, and was
continued on by way of Malta, still held by the French,
to Alexandria and the Levant, where Bonaparte then
was.
From this brief outline it is evident that the sea in the
past has not been so exclusively dominated, even by Great
Britain, at her greatest, that a contest for control may not
take the form of a succession of campaigns marked by
T U R
t^
^\r
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 261
aps and downs. In fact, the very year after the Battle
of the Nile a French fleet of twenty-five of the line broke
into the Mediterranean, torned all the British dispositions
upside down, and finally went back with fifteen or twenty
Spaniards, bringing to Brest a concentrated body of over
forty ships. Had there been any single port in the Medi-
terranean capable of maintaining such a body, they might
have remained there; modifying conditions, if not revers-
ing them. As it was, even in Brest they starved for want
of supplies; but while this result shows the need of
properly equipped bases, it also demonstrates that Great
Britain did not control the sea in such sense that her hold
could not be shaken. Yet in no war has she been more
powerful at sea. In the War of American Independence,
the West Indies and North America witnessed a like con-
test for control; of which Suffren's campaign in the
East Indies, at the same period, is also a conspicuous
illustration.
The necessity for properly equipped and properly situated
local bases for a naval force in distant or advanced opera-
tions is also evident from this Mediterranean example. The
War of American Independence offers a strikingly similar
instance, on a smaller scale. In 1782 and 1783, the French
and British squadrons in the East Indies were substantially
equal. The scene of operations, dictated by local conditions
on shore, was the Coromandel Coast ; the east side of Hin-
dustan. Naval cooperation was not practicable during the
strength of the northeast monsoon, say from November to
Maix;h, because the onshore wind blew with violence. The
British retired for that season to Bombay, where they had
establishments for refit. The French had no similar port
nearer than the Mauritius, and all their previous campaigns
had failed for want of an advanced base on, or near, the
Coromandel Coast It happened, on this occasion, that
the Dutch, who then owned Ceylon, had entered the war
262 NAVAL STRATEGY
against Great Britain in 1781, and the British had taken
from them Trincomalee on the northeast coast of Ceylon;
that is, in prolongation, southward, of the Coromandel Coast.
There had not, however, been time enough to fortify the
port properly, or else, as is more likely, the opportunity
to do so had been neglected; and the French Admiral
Suffren by dexterity and rapidity of action gained posses-
sion. This was the advanced position he needed, and
when winter came he retired there to refit, thus remaining
close to the scene of war, a very important matter for
its political effect upon the French allies on shore. The
British fleet went to Bombay, practically out of reach for
four months or more. Had it retained Trincomalee, the
French must have gone to Mauritius, or remained at anchor
off a dangerous lee shore, with which they could seldom
communicate. The result was that Suffren next season
appeared on the scene two months before the British, and
obtained successes which might have been decisive if peace
had not intervened.
From the instances cited, it may be accepted that war
upon the sea may take the shape of a protracted series of
campaigns, between forces so nearly equal as to afford large
play for strategic combinations. In fact, during the War of
American Independence, of which Suffren's campaign was
an episode, the seas of North America and the West Indies
offered a similar illustration of the balance of naval forces ;
the scales swaying now to this side, now to that, up to the
decisive events of Yorktown in 1781, and Rodney's victory
of 1782, which marked the end of the struggle in either
quarter. The same general result may be found, though
to a less marked degree, even when one fleet is markedly
superior to the other. It is clear also that the vigor and
celerity which are essential to ultimate success may depend
upon the tenure of local bases of operations. This was
one great advantage of Japan over Russia in the recent
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 263
war. It may be, however, that the local bases of the enem j
are too strongly fortified for attack, or that the assailant's
force is too weak for quick reduction — as happened at
Port Arthur.
As a matter of experience, local bases, if fairly fortified,
are rarely attacked until the one party or the other has
established predominance on the water. In 1760-1762,
the British captured Martinique and Guadeloupe £rom the
French, and again in 1794 and 1810 ; but in the interme-
diate war, of American Independence, they made no attempt
upon either. This was partly because their army was
occupied on the American continent ; partly because they
could not risk a big detachment of troops when a naval
check, as at Grenada, in 1779, might cause its surrender.
They did snatch away Santa Lucia; but that was at the very
opening of hostilities, in 1778, and was due to their own
local base at Barbados being reinforced before the French
had completed their preparations for defense. It was a suc-
cessful coup de main. In the same way, the French and
Spaniards did not attempt Jamaica until 1782, when they
were in superior force in the Caribbean. The attempt failed
with Rodney's victory over the French fleet; that is, the
allies were beaten in detail. The defeat of one part of their
force rendered the other, the Spaniards, innocuous.
The distance from your own most advanced position to
the position you wish to attack may be a further element
of difficulty. To act from Cuba against the Windward
Islands, such as Martinique and Santa Lucia, which by
position control the eastern gateways of the Caribbean
Sea, is cleaiiy a more complicated undertaking than sim-
ilar action from Cuba against Jamaica. If a harbor of
Porto Rico is susceptible of adequate defense against attack
in force, it would be in respect of situation a more advan-
tageous base of operations against the Windward Islands
than anything in Cuba. St. Thomas, I believe, is capable
264 NAVAL STRATEGY
of such defense; and it is better situated than Porto
Rico.
To a fleet already weakened numerically by its first ad-
Vance and by the necessity of guarding its first line of
communications, such as that from the United States ports
to Cuba, a second long line, as from Cuba to the Windward
Islands, or to the Isthmus, is a serious consideration if the
enemy be active. The care of the second advanced line may
bring the fleet down to an equality of strength with the
enemy who has an advantage in acting nearer his own base.
In such a case the inability of the fleet to carry supplies,
beyond a certain amount, in its own bottoms, should be
supplemented by a depot — if any such offer — some dis-
tance in front of the position to which the first advance has
been carried. Samana Bay or Porto Rico will illustrate
such intermediate — that is, advanced — depots ; corre-
sponding to San Fiorenzo Bay as before cited, or to Port
Royal and Key West in the War of Secession, or to Guan-
tanarao in the American operations against Santiago. Such
a depot need only be safe Ivom a raid, for it may be assumed
that the movements of the enemy can be watched suffi-
ciently to prevent a sudden attack in force upon it; the
fleet being, by the supposed advance, in face of the enemy's
fleet and base. If more than one such advanced, or inter-
mediate, point be available, a careful choice must be made
between them ; looking not only to their intrinsic advan-
tages, but to their relations to the probable movements of
the fleet, and to the first and second lines of communication,
the protection of which will draw upon those forces of the
fleet that ought to be dispersed as little as possible.
Having reference to the defense of the Canal, which is
the crucial strategic feature of the whole Caribbean, it may
be remarked that to attack an enemy's base, such as Mar-
tinique or Santa Lucia, is a more effective measure for pro-
tection and control of the Isthmus than a direct defense
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 265
of the Isthmus itself would be ; whether such defense be
•
passive only, by fortification, or active, by a fleet resting
upon the fortified Canal. For, if one of the islands —
supposed an enemy's base — is attacked by a combined
expedition, such attack, so long as sustained in adequate
force, detains the scene of war at a distance from the Canal,
and protects all communications west of the operation. It
constitutes an advanced front of operations, combined with
the moral power of the initiative and of the offensive. If it
ultimately fails, it nevertheless will have produced this
result for the time it lasts ; while if successful, the enemy
is deprived of a necessary base, the recovery of which in-
volves operations that will exert the same protective in-
fluence as those which effected the capture.
If between the position you have first occupied and the
enemy's base there is only clear sea (as between Cuba and
Martinique, if not able to use Samana), it may be possible
to take with the fleet a number of transports, above all, of
colliers ; especially if you are so superior as to allow a cer-
tain proportion of the fleet to be continually coaling, without
reducing the number engaged below the enemy's strength.
Before Trafalgar, Nelson thus sent his ships by groups of
a half-dozen to water at Tetuan. Owing to the absence
of such a division he had but twenty-seven instead of thirty*
three on the day of battle. If he could have watered at sea,
thus keeping his vessels together, the battle would have
been even more decisive. The battleship Massachusetts
lost her share in the battle of Santiago, because coaling at
Guantanamo.
It will be borne in mind that a body of transports is al-
ways a tactical weakness in the day of battle, and will prob-
ably lower the fleet-speed of a number of high-powered ships
of war. The question of speed in such an advance, however,
may be of secondary importance, if the enemy's expected
reinforcements cannot reach him within a known time ; and»
266 NAVAL STRATEGY
when about to engage, the safety of colliers and other incum-
biances should be dismissed £rom mind, in view of the
greater tactical necessity of beating the enemy while he is
still inferior. In these calculations, much depends upon
the respective strength of the two fleets. The best defense
for the transports will be to attack the enemy and occupy
him fully, just as the best defense of the Isthmus would be
to attack an enemy's base. This has been, historically, the
usual practice. In the expedition against Jamaica in 1782,
De Orasse, when he found Rodney on his heels, sent his
transports into the neighboring ports of Ouadeloupe, and
then fought.
The case of further advance from your new base may
not be complicated by the consideration of great distance.
The next step requisite to be taken may be short, as from
Cuba to Jamaica ; or it may be that the enemy's fleet is
still at sea, in which case it is the great objective, now as
always. Its being at sea may be because retreating, from
the position you have occupied, towards his remoter base ;
either because conscious of inferiority, or, perhaps, after a
defeat more or less decisive. It will then be necessary to
act with rapidity, in order to cut off the enemy from his
port of destination. If there is reason to believe that you
can overtake and pass him with superior force, every effort
to do so must be made. The direction of his retreat is
known or must be ascertained, and it will be borne in mind
that the base to which he is retreating and his fleet are
separated parts of one force, the union of which must be
prevented. In such a case, the excuses frequently made
for a sluggish pursuit ashore, such as fatigue of troops,
heavy roads, etc., do not apply. Crippled battleships must
be dropped, or ordered to follow with the colliers. Such
a pursuit presumes but one disadvantage to the chasing
fleet, viz., that it is leaving its coal base while the chase is
approaching his ; and this, if the calculations are close, may
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 267
give the pursuing admiral great anxiety. Such anxieties
are the test and penalty of greatness. In such cases, excuses
for failure attributed to shortness of coal will be closely
scrutinized ; and justly. In all other respects, superiority
must be assumed, because on no other condition could such
headlong pursuit be made. It aims at a great success, and
successes will usually be in proportion to superiority, either
original or acquired. ^ What the country needs," said Nel-
son, ^ is the annihilation of the enemy. Only numbers can
annihilate. ''
If such a chase follow a battle, it can scarcely &il that the
weaker party — the retreatinsf party — is also distressed by
orippled"^ which h. ^j^i^ U, .h,u,do.-or
fight. Strenuous, unrelaxing pursuit is therefore as im-
perative after a battle as is courage during it. Great
political results often flow from correct military action ; a
fact which no military commander is at liberty to ignore.
He may very well not know of those results ; it is enough
to know that they may happen, and nothing can excuse his
losing a point which by exertion he might have scored.
Napoleon, says Jomini, never forgave the general who in
1796, by resting his troops a couple of hours, failed to get
between an Austrian division and Mantua, in which it was
seeking refuge, and by his neglect found it The failure of
Admiral de Tourville to pursue vigorously the defeated
Dutch and English fleet, after the battle of Beachy Head,
in 1690, caused that victory to be indecisive, and helped to
fasten the crown of England on the head of a Dutch King,
who was the soul of the alliance against France. Slackness
in following up victory had thus a decisive influence upon
the results of the whole war, both on the continent and the
sea. I may add, it has proved injurious to the art of naval
strategy, by the seeming confirmation it has g^iyen to the
theory of the ^* fleet in being. " It was not the beaten and
crippled English and Dutch *^ fleet in being " that prevented
268 NAVAL STRATEGY
an inyasion of England. It was the weakness or inertness
of Tourville, or the unreadiness of the French transports.
Similarly, the refusal of Admiral Hotham to pursue vig-
orously a beaten French fleet in 1795, unquestionably not
only made that year's campaign indecisive, but made pos-
sible Napoleon's Italian campaign of 1796, from which flowed
his whole career and its effects upon history. The same
dazzling career received its sudden mortal stab when, in the
height of his crushing advance in Spain, with its capital in
his hands, at the very moment when his vast plans seemed
on the eve of accomplishment, a more enterprising British
leader. Sir John Moore, moved his petty army to Sahagun,
on the flank of Napoleon's communications between France
and Madrid. The blow recoiled upon Moore, who was
swept as by a whirlwind to Corufia, and into the sea; but
Spain was saved. The Emperor could not retrieve the lost
time and opportunity. He could not return to Madrid in
person, but had to entrust to several subordinates the task
which only his own supreme genius could successfully
supervise. From the military standpoint, his downfall
dates from that day. The whole career of Wellingrton, to
Waterloo, lay in the womb of Moore's daring .conception.
But for that, wrote Napier, the Peninsular War would not
have required a chronicler.
An admiral may not be able to foresee such remote con-
sequences of his action, but he can safely adopt the prin-
ciple expressed by Nelson, in the instance just cited, after
hearing his commander-in-chief say they had done well
enough : '* If ten ships out of eleven were taken, I would
never call it well enough, if we were able to get at the
eleventh."
The relations between the fleets of Admirals Rozhestven-
sky and Togo prior to their meeting off Tsushima bore no
slight resemblance to those between a pursued and a pursu-
ing fleet. The Russian fleet, which had started before the
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 269
Fort Arthur division succumbed, was placed bj that event
in the position of a fleet which has suffered defeat so severe
that its first effort must be to escape into its own ports*
This was so obvious that many felt a retreat upon the Baltic
was the only course left open ; but, idling that, Rozhestven-
sky aigued that he should rush on to Vladivostok at once,
before the Japanese should get again into the best condition
to intercept him, by repairing their ships, cleaning the
bottoms, and refreshing the ships' companies. Instead
of so ordering, the Russian government decided to hold
him at Nossi-B^ (the north end of Madagascar), pending
a reinforcement to be sent under Admiral Nebogatoff.
Something is to be said for both views, in the abstract;
but considering that the reinforcement was heterogeneous
and inferior in character, that the Russian first aim was
not battle but escape to Vladivostok, and, especially,
that the Japanese were particularly anxious to obtain
the use of delay for the very purpose Rozhestvensky feared,
it seems probable that he was right. In any event, he
was delayed at Nossi-B^ from January 9 to March 16 ; and
afterwards at Kamranh Bay in French Cochin China,
from April 14 to May 9, when Nebogatoff joined. Ah
lowing time for coaling and refitting, this indicates a delay
of sixty to seventy days ; the actual time underway from
Nossi-B^ to Tsushima being only forty-five days. Thus,
but for the wait for Nebogatoff, the Russian division would
have reached Tsushima two months before it did, or about
March 20.
Togo did not have to get ahead of a flying fleet, for by
the fortune of position he was already ahead of it ; but he
did have to select the best position for intercepting it,
as well as to decide upon his general course of action :
whether, for instance, he should advance to meet it;
whether he should attempt embarrassment by his superior
force of torpedo vessels, so as to cripple or destroy some of
270 KAVAL STRATEGY
its units, thus reducing further a force already inferior;
also the direction and activities of his available scouts.
His action may be taken as expressing his opinions on
these subjects. He did not advance ; he did not attempt
harassment prior to meeting; he concentrated his entire
battle force on the line bj which he expected the enemy
must advance; and he was so far in ignorance of their
movements that he received information only on the very
morning of the battle. Tliis was well enough ; but it is
scarcely unreasonable to say it might have been bettered.
The Japanese, however, had behind them a large part of a
successful naval campaign, the chief points of which it is
relevant to our subject to note. They had first by a sur-
prise attack inflicted a marked injury on the CQcmy's fleet,
during its enforced inactivity. They had then reduced
one of the enemy's two naval bases, and destroyed the
division sheltered in it By this they had begun to beat
the enemy in detail, and had left the approaching rein-
forcement only one possible port of arrival.
If a flying fleet has been lost to sight and has but one
port of refuge, pursuit, of course, will be directed upon
that port ; but if there are more, the chasing admiral will
have to decide upon what point to direct his fleet, and will
send out despatch vessels in different directions to find the
enemy and transmit intelligence. Cruisers engaged in
such duty should be notified of the intended or possible
movements of the fleet, and when practicable should be
sent in couples ; for although wireless telegraphy has now
superseded the necessity of sending one back with infor-
mation, while the other remains in touch with the enemy,
accidents may happen, and in so important a matter it
seems expedient to double precautions. The case re-
sembles duplicating important correspondence; for wire-
less cannot act before it has news, and to obtain news
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 271
objects must be seen. It is to be remembered, too, that
wireless messages may be intercepted, to the serious dis-
advantage of the sender. It seems possible that conjunc-
tures may arise when it will be safer to send a vessel with
tidings rather than commit them to air waves.
Thus, in theory, and to make execution perfect, — to
capture, so to say. Nelson's eleventh ship, — the aim must
be to drive the enemy out of every foothold in the whole
theater of war, and particularly to destroy or shut up his
fleet. Having accomplished the great feature of the task
by getting hold of the most decisive position, further effort
must be directed towards, possibly not upon, those points
which may serve him still for bases. In so doing, your fleet
must not be divided, unless overwhelmingly strong, and
must not extend its lines of communication beyond the
power of protecting them, unless it be for a dash of limited
duration.
If compelled to choose between fortified ports of the
enemy and his fleet, the latter will be regarded as the true
objective ; but a blockade of the ports, or an attack upon
them, may be the surest means of bringing the ships within
reach. Thus, in the War of American Independence, the
siege of Gibraltar compelled the British fleet on more than
one occasion to come within fighting reach of the enemy's
blockading fleet, in order to throw in supplies. That the
allies did not attack, except on one occasion, does not in-
validate the lesson. Corbett in his Seven Tears' War
points out very justly, in Byng's celebrated &ilure, which
cost him his life, that if he had moved against the French
transports, in a neighboring bay, the French admiral would
have had to attack, and the result might have been more
favorable to the British. Such movements are essentially
blows at the commimications of the enemy, and if aimed
without unduly risking your own will be in thorough
accord with the most assured principles of strategy. A
272 NAVAL STRATEGY
militarily effective blockade of a base essential to tiie enemj
will force his fleet either to fight or to abandon tiie theater
of war. Thus, as has been pointed out elsewhere, in
Suffren's campaign in Indian Seas, so long as Trincomalee
was in possession of tiie British, a tiireat at it was sure to
bring them out to fight, although it was not their principal
base. The abandonment of the theater of war by the navy
will cause the arsenal to fall in time, through failure of re-
sources, as Gibraltar must have fallen if the British fleet
had not returned and supplied it at intervals. Such a
result, however, is less complete than a victory over the
enemy's navy, which would lead to the same end, and so
be a double success, ships and port.
If the enemy have on the theater of war two or more
ports of supplies, which together form his base, and those
points fulfill the condition before laid down, tiiat they
should not be so near that both can be watched by one
fleet, the task becomes more difficult. The two most im-
portant naval stations on our Atlantic coast, Norfolk and
New York, offer such conditions, being some two hundred
and fifty miles apart; and to a retreating United States
fleet the second entrance to New York, by Long Island
Sound, together with Narragansett Bay, constitutes for
a pursuing enemy a further complication which favors
escape. A single port with widely separated entrances
approaches the condition of two ports, in the embarrass-
ment imposed upon an enemy who has lost touth. Admiral
Togo was confronted with just this perplexity. Vladivostok
could be reached by three different routes, wide apart. A
position heading off all three could be found close before
Vladivostok itself ; but, besides the possibility that an un-
favorable chance, such as a fog, might allow the Russians
to slip by, in which case they would not have far to go to
get in, there was also the risk that, even if defeated, those
which escaped for the moment could enter, thus making
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 278
a victory less decisive. The puisuit of the day following
the battle picked up ships which had got by, and in the
supposed case might have reached port
In the instructions of Napoleon to Marmont, before cited,
the Emperor, estimating the various chances from the dis-
positions he has ordered, considers that of battle near
Salamanca. This is to be desired, he writes, because, if
beaten so far £rom the sea, the English will be ruined, and
Portugal thereby conquered. This distance from the sea
was distance from the English refuge. It was the merit
of Sir John Moore that in the headlong pursuit by the
Emperor he avoided decisive action, and got his army to
the sea ; fugitive, and demoralized by exhaustion, but still
saved. It is to be remembered that in this very recent in-
stance of Tsushima the Japanese immediately before the
battle had lost touch with the enemy. Over a century
before Togo, Rodney failed more than once to intercept'
French bound to Martinique, because they used one of the
many passages open between the Windward Islands to
enter the Caribbean, and so escaped detection until too
late to be intercepted. To cruise before Martinique was
ineffective, because the French had other available refuges
in Guadeloupe; and besides, with the perpetual trade
wind, and calms intervening, blockading sailing ships fell
to leeward, — could not keep their station.
The guiding principle in all these cases is that your force
must not be divided, unless large enough to be nowhere
inferior to the enemy, and that your aim should be to
reduce his base to a single point, out of which he can then
be driven by regular operations, or by exhaustion ; or, at
least, to reach which with supplies, or for refuge, his fleet
must accept battle. Thus the British in 1794, and again
in 1808-1810, took from the French both Martinique and
Guadeloupe, depriving them of all foothold in the West
Indies, and so securing the Caribbean for British commerce.
274 NAVAL STRATEGY
As regular operations usually require much more time
than assault does, if there be more than one arsenal the
weaker would preferably be carried by force, leaving the
strongest to fall afterwards by the less dangerous means
of regular operations already indicated for a single post.
In the Mediterranean, from 1798 to 1800, the French held
both Malta and Egypt. The strength of the fortifications
of Malta is known ; whereas Egypt had nothing comparable.
Egypt after long blockade was reduced by an extensive
combined assault, a great fleet and a considerable army.
Malta was overcome by cutting its communications, and
surrendered to exhaustion. Port Arthur was taken by
force. If Rozhestvensky had reached Vladivostok without
a battle, the war would have continued ; but the Japanese
under the conditions would probably have contented them-
selves with blockading that port, relying upon the presence
of their fleet assuring all the sea behind, which would
secure the communications of the army in Manchuria.
Going on thus from the simpler to the more difficult
cases, we now reach the one where your strength is not
great enough to give present hope of driving the enemy
quite out of the field of war. That is, an attitude generally
defensive in character succeeds one that is distinctively
offensive. When this occurs, you will seek to occupy as
advanced a position as possible, consistently with your
communications. Such advanced position may not be a
point or a line of the land, but at sea. If Cuba, for in-
stance, belonged to the United States, it may be conceived
that the fleet would seek to control the Mona Passage,
resting on no nearer base than the eastern ports of Cuba.
Or from the same base, the fleet might seek to maintain a
cruising ground to the southward in the Caribbean Sea, to
harass the enemy's commerce or protect the interests of its
own nation. It might, again, in its advanced position, be
simply waiting for an expected attack, — an attempt, pos-
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 275
sibly, of the enemy to regam the position which had been
seized, — when its duties would be to delay, harass and
finally attack him, as before suggested in speaking of his
action upon your advance.
The object of such an advanced position as is now being
discussed is to cover the ground or sea in its rear, and to
meet and hinder the advance of the enemy. Consequently,
it should be chosen in all its details with strict reference to
strategic considerations ; until circumstances change, a far-
ther permanent advance is not contemplated. The position
taken up, therefore, has reference to the lines of communi-
cation behind it and to those by which it is approached
from the side of the enemy ; those which it covers and those
by which it is threatened. Napoleon, in 1796, made the line
of the Adige his front of defense, thereby covering all the
ground in his rear and securing the use of it for the supply
of his army. Thus, too, the British fleet at San Fiorenzo
Bay, Corsica, in 1794-1796 rested on that bay as a base, and
maintained thence its front of operations before the gates of
Toulon. This kept in check a powerful French fleet in
the port, covered the communications with Gibraltar, and
secured the Mediterranean for British trade.
When too much is not risked thereby, the line should be
advanced to include cross-roads or narrow passages that are
near to. Though the open sea has not natural strategic
points, yet the crossing of the best mercantile routes, the
difficulties of strong head winds and adverse currents, will
make some points and some lines more important than
others. The occurrence of strong harbors, possibly "fihoal
water, or other difficulties to navigation, may affect the
tracing of the line laid down to be held. A fleet, for in-
stance, advanced to the Mona Passage and resting upon no
nearer fortified port than those in Cuba, might yet venture
to establish in Samana Bay a depot of coal, which would
facilitate its remaining on the ground, yet the loss of
276 NAVAL STRATEGY
which would not be a vital injury, in case of defeat An
advance of the enemy being expected, everything that de-
lays or that makes farther advance hazardous is useful.
The fleet, it cannot be too often repeated, is the chief ele-
ment of strength in naval warfare ; but the fleet with strong
points to support it is stronger than the fleet alone.
We have now brought our expeditionary fleet, which has
hitherto been on the offensive and advancing, to a stand-
still. The efforts which it has made, the losses which it
has undergone, by battle, or by detachments necessitated by
its lengthening lines, the difficulties in front, all or some of
these lay upon it the necessity of stopping for a time, as
did Napoleon in the case I have just cited. This stoppage
will be for the purpose of securing conquests made; of
strengthening the supply ports in the new base, so that
the defense of them may be thrown upon the land forces,
thus releasing detachments of ships hitherto tied to them ;
of storing in these ports supplies in such quantities as to be
independent, for a long time, of the mother country and of
the first line of communications which connects with it.
When Bonaparte had established himself at Verona and on
the Adige, he not only had useful control of all Italy south
and west of that position, except the besieged fortress of
Mantua ; he also had placed the communications nearest to
France so remote from interruption, that detachments once
necessary to guard them were no longer required for that
purpose. The communications were as if in France itself.
These processes amount to a military occupation of the
conquered positions, incorporating the conquest militarily
with the home country; and will result in releasing the
navy, in gi*eat measure, from the direct defense of the con-
quered ports, in which at first it will have to aid. By such
establishment of the advanced position, dependence upon
the original lines of communications is lessened, and the
burden of defending them diminished. The detachments
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 277
thus released will join the fleet, and, with other reinforce-
ments sent from home, may so increase its strength as to
enable it again to take up the direct offensive ; a step which
will be made upon the same general strategic principles as
have already been given for the first advance.
It will remain, therefore, to consider more particularly
the principles governing a defense, which have at times
been alluded to in speaking of the opponent's action during
your own advance.
Suggestions for defense cannot be as satis&ctoiy, super-
ficially at least, as those for offense, because the defensive
is simply making the best of a bad bargain ; doing not the
thing it would like to do, but the most that can be done
under the circumstances.
It is true that in certain respects the defensive has ad-
vantages, the possession of which may even justify an ex-
pression, which has been stated as a maxim of war, that
*^ Defense is a stronger form of war than Offense is." I do
not like the expression, for it seems to me misleading as to
the determinative characteristics of a defensive attitude;
but it may pass, if properly qualified. What is meant by
it is that in a particular operation, or even in a general
plan, the party on the defense, since he makes no forward
movement for the time, can streng^en his preparations,
make deliberate and permanent dispositions; while the
party on the offensive, being in continual movement, is
more liable to mistake, of which the defense may take ad-
vantage, and in any case has to accept as part of his
problem the disadvantage, to him, of the accumulated prep-
arations that the defense has been making while he has
been marching. The extreme example of preparation is a
fortified permanent post ; but similar instances are found in
a battle field carefully chosen for advantages of groimd,
where attack is awaited, and in a line of ships, which by the
solidarity of its order, and deployment of broadside, awaits
278 NAVAL STRATEGY
an enemy who has to approach in column with disadvan-
tage as to train of guns. In so far, the form taken by the
defense is stronger than the /orm assumed for the moment
by the offense.
If you will think clearly, you will recognize that at
Tsushima the Japanese were on the defensive, for their ob-
ject was to stop, to thwart, the Russian attempt. Essen-
tially, whatever the tactical method they adopted, they were
to spread their broadsides across the road to Vladivostok,
and await. The Russians were on the offensive, little as
we are accustomed so to regard them; they had to get
through to Vladivostok — if they could. They had to hold
their course to the place, and to break through the Japan-
ese,— if they could. In short, they were on the offensive,
and the form of their approach had to be in column, bows on,
— a weaker form, — which they had to abandon, tactically,
as soon as they came under fire.
In our hostilities with Spain, also, Cervera's movement
before reaching Santiago was offensive in character, the at-
titude of the United States defensive ; that is, he was try-
ing to effect something which the American Navy was set
to prevent There being three principal Spanish ports,
Havana, Cienfuegos, and Santiago, we could not be certain
for which he would try, and should have been before two
in such force that an attempt by him would have assured a
battle. We were strong enough for such a disposition.
The two ports thus to be barred were evidently Havana
and Cienfuegos. The supposed necessity for defending our
northern coast left Cienfuegos open. Had Cervera made
for it, he would have reached it before the Flying Squadron
did. The need for keeping the Flying Squadron in Hamp-
ton Roads was imaginary, but it none the less illustrates
the effect of inadequate coast defenses upon the military
plan of the nation.
The author whom I quote (Corbett, Seven Years' War,
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 279
vol. i, p. 92), who himself quotes from one of the first
of authorities, Clausewitz, has therefore immediately to
qualify his maxim, thus:
"^ When we say that defense is a stronger form of war,
tluxt isy that it requires a smaller forces \f soundly designed^
we are speaking, of course, only of one certain line of oper-
ations. If we do not know the general line of operation on
which the enemy intends to attack, and so cannot mass our
force upon it, then defense is weak, because we are com-
pelled to distribute our force so as to be strong enough to
stop the enemy on any line of operations he may adopt."
Manifestly, however, a force capable of being strong
enough on several lines of operation to stop an enemy
possesses a superiority that should take the offensive. In
the instance just cited, of Cervera's approach, the American
true policy of concentration would have had to yield to
distribution, between Cienf uegos and Havana. Instead of
a decisive superiority on one position, there would have
been a bare equality upon two. Granting an enemy of
equal skill and training, the result might have been one way
or the other ; and the only compensation would have been
that the enemy would have been so badly handled that, to
use Nelson's phrase, he would give no more trouble that
season, and the other American division would have con-
trolled the seas, as Togo did after August 10, 1904. From
the purely professional point of view it is greatly to be
regretted that the Spaniards and Russians showed such
poor professional aptitude.
The radical disadvantage of the defensive is evident.
It not only is the enforced attitude of a weaker party, but
it labors under the further onerous uncertainty where the
offensive may strike, when there is more than one line of
operation open to him, as there usually is. This tends to
entail dissemination of force. The advantages of the defen-
sive have been sufficiently indicated ; they are essentially
those of deliberate preparation, shown in precautions of
280 NAVAL STRATEGY
various kinds. In assuming the defensive you take for
granted the impossibility of your own permanent advance
and the ability of the enemy to present himself before your
front in superior numbers ; unless you can harass him on
the way and cause loss enough to diminish the inequality.
Unless such disparity exists, you should be on the offen-
sive. On the other hand, in the defensive it has to be
taken for granted that you have on your side a respectable
though inferior battle fleet, and a sea frontier possessing a
certain number of ports which cannot be reduced without
regular operations, in which the armed shipping can be got
ready for battle, and to which, as to a base, they can retire
for refit Without these two elements there can be no
serious defense.
The question for immediate consideration here, however,
is not the defense of the home coast, but the defense of a
maritime region of which control has been acquired, wholly
or in part. Unless this region be very close to the mother
country, the power of the nation will not be as fully de-
veloped and established as at home. The nearness of the
Caribbean Sea gives special value to any judiciously placed
acquirements of the United States there, — such as the
Panama Canal Zone, Porto Rico, and Guantanamo, as
compared with the same in possession of European states.
So also the position of Japan in the Farther East confers
on her a very marked advantage over every European or
American state for sustaining and compacting her power,
and for carrying on operations of war. But where the
intervening distances are very nearly equal, the maritime
region of our present hypothesis lies between the two
distant contestants as a debatable land, very much as
Grermany and the Danube Valley lay in former days be-
tween Austria and France. This was the case with the
region embracing the West Indies and the thirteen
American colonies, during the maritime war associated with
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 281
that of American Independence. The islands and the
continent, with the intervening seas, were the principal
scene of the maritime war, and they were substantially
equidistant from the great Powers engaged : France, Great
Britain, and Spain. On land, the control of such a remote
region depends upon two elements : the holding of certain
points as bases, and the maintenance of an active army in
the field ; but it is according as the army is stronger Or
weaker than that of the enemy that it takes the offensive
or defensive. Now, in a maritime region, the navy is the
army in the field.
It is in the defensive that the strong places play their
most important part. When an army is advancing in su-
perior force, those belonging to it will be behind — in its
rear. They serve then as safe points for the assembling of
supplies, of trains, of reinforcements. If well garrisoned,
and in secure communication with the army, the latter
maneuvers freely.
*^ It is desirable," says the Archduke Charles, speaking
more particularly of the base of operations — but the re-
mark applies also to intermediate points, — ^Hhat these
points should be fortified so as to be able to leave them to
themselves without fear of losing the magazines there es-
tablished, and not to be obliged to defend them with
detachments, which have alwajrs the inconvenience of
weakening the army. The movements of the general-in-
chief, forbed before all to cover his magazines and to leave
troops to g^ard them, will never be as rapid nor as bold as
if he had the faculty of moving away from them for some
time with the certainty of finding them again intact."
The same is true of any naval base of operations, if in-
adequately defended; and the more useful and necessary
it is to the fleet, the greater the hindrance to naval move-
ments which may expose it, when so undefended.
The Archduke spoke from sad experience ; if not his own
personally, at least that of the armies of his country. The
282 NAVAL STRATEGY
Austrians, probably because they weie of Germanio blood,
akin to the countries in which they were operating, did not
live off them in the unscrupulous manner then practised
by the French. They needed, therefore, large depots, for
which they could not always have a fortified town.
Consequently, they either had to leave a large body of
men to guard them, which weakened the main army, or,
if they tried to cover them with the latter, its freedom of
movement was seriously impaired.
Note that those extreme advocates of the navy as a coast
defense, who decry fortifications, would put the navy in a
similar predicament.
It will not be inferred from this that the most strongly
fortified places do not demand garrisons ; but the strength
of the walls represents so many men, and, moreover, troops
of a quality unfit for the field may man works. It is just
so with a seaport; if it has no fortifications, the navy may
have to undertake a great part of the defense; if ade-
quately fortified, the detachment from the navy is released
and the defense carried on by troops not fitted for service
afloat. Such places are the foundation upon which an
offensive best rests ; and in regions permanently belonging
to a nation, they should be so chosen, with reference to in-
trinsic fitness aud relative position, as to be co(5rdinated
into a strategic system, to the power of which each con-
tributes. They must not be too few ; neither must they be
too many, for to protect and garrison them takes from the
numbers of the active army — the army in the field. When,
therefore, the number of fortresses exceeds that which is
necessary, the active army is not strengthened, but weak-
ened. "France," says Jomini, "had too many fortified
places, Germany too few ; and the latter were generally
bad" (that is, weak) "and unsuitably placed." Under
these conditions, it is not to be wondered at that the ex-
perience of the French o£Bcer and the German Archduke
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 288
led the former rather to depreciate and the latter to exag-
gerate the value of fortified posts*
This question of fortified points of support, depots for
supply, and if need be for momentary refuge, assumes
peculiar importance in the matter immediately before us — >
the control of a maritime region external to the country.
In such a case the army in the field is preeminently the
navy. The land forces will commonly be confined to hold-
ing these positions, defensively ; expeditionary, or offensive,
movements will be for them exceptionaL A fleet charged
with the protection of such bases, whether at home or
abroad, is so far clogged in its movement, and is to the
same extent in a false position. An egregious instance at
the present moment is the fear in Great Britain of German
invasion. This is due to the great inferiority of the army
in the British Islands to that of Germany. The British
Islands are inadequately garrisoned ; they depend for de-
fense upon the fleet alone ; and the fleet consequently is
tied to British waters. If Great Britain on her own soil
could meet Germany man to man, equal in numbers and in
training, the fleet would have relatively a free foot It
could afford, for example, to spare a detachment to the
Mediterranean, or to China; retaining at home only a
reasonable superiority to a possible enemy. As things are,
since all depends upon the fleet, the fleet must have a wider
margin of safety, a crushing superiority ; that is, its freedom
of movement and range of action are impaired greatly, by
the necessity of keeping with it ships which under other
conditions might be spared.
A navy may be thrown perilously upon the defensive in
its general action in a particular region, because obliged to
cover two or more points inadequately protected by fortifi-
cation or army. Thus, in 1799, the unexpected entrance of
twenty-five French battleships into the Mediterranean
turned everything upside down, because so many points were
284 NAVAL STRATEGY
thought to need protection, and could receive it onlyfrom the
fleet, because they weie inadequately garrisoned ; a precise
reproduction, on a smaller scale, of the present dilemma of
the British Islands. Specifically, the British commander-in-
chief felt the weight of Minorca ; and he used concerning it
an expression which is worthy of remembrance as bearing
upon the Fleet in Being theory and the Blue Water SchooL
*^ It is too bad," he said, *^ that I cannot find these vaga-
bonds,"— that is, the French fleet, — ^*and that I am so
shackled by the care of this defetueleM island." The man
who used these words was not a commander of the first
order ; but he was an o£Bcer of more than usual distinction,
of capacity proved much above the average, and he here
expressed a frame of mmd inevitable to the average man.
But for the necessity of protecting positions, the British
fleet would have concentrated, and would have moved
freely at will, and in force, offensively against the enemy.
As it was, not knowing the enemy's purpose, it was kept
in two principal divisions, neither of them equal to the
French whole. One, the main body, covered Minorca and
kept moving somewhat aimlessly in the triangle defined by
Barcelona, Toulon, and Minorca ; the other, under Nelson,
covered the approaches to Naples and Sicily. Amid this
maze of British perplexity arising from the need of defend-
ing several points with the fleet alone, the French acted
safely, though hastily, and retired unmolested; taking
with them from Cartagena a large body of Spanish ships,
which remained in Brest hostages for the alliance of
Spain.
It is when thrown on the defensive, that the value of
strong places is most felt. The first object, in order, of
the defense, is to gain time. It is therefore of advantage
that opposition to the enemy should begin as far as pos-
sible in front of the vital points of the defense. In Bona-
parte's famous campaign in Italy, of 1796, the dexterity of
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 286
his strategy and the audacity of his tactics enabled him in
two months to cover the ground from Savona, well west of
Oenoa, to Mantua. There the fortress held him for nine
months. Observe that Lombardy, the valley of the Po,
then an appendage of Austria, was to Austria just what an
external maritime region, the Caribbean for instance, may
be to a maritime state like the United States. Though
long since lost, Austria perhaps has never reconciled her-
self to a surrender which shut her off from the Mediter-
ranean, a new approach to which she seems now to be
seeking in the Balkans. Mantua was to her an advanced
post, which by its effect on the movements of an approach-
ing invader protected, not only the region wherein it itself
lay, but the home country behind. Its powerful garrison,
like a fleet in a seaport, threatened, and unless checked
would control, the French communications as they ad-
vanced up the Alps towards the Austrian home territory.
Bonaparte had not force enough to oppose to the garrison,
and at the same time to move forward. He could not di-
vide, so had to stop ; and in the nine months of delay Austria
collected and sent against him no less than three successive
armies, whom he repelled only by a display of skill, daring,
and energy, of which he alone was capable. Two months
after Mantua fell, he had progressed so far towards Vienna
that Austria asked for peace.
A fortress like Mantua, in a case like this, affords a
striking instance of defense being a strong foim of war,
and also of the advantage of opposition to an enemy's ap-
proach beginning as far as possible in advance of the home
territory. It is perhaps an extreme example. Yet, all the
while, Bonaparte was showing how much stronger in spirit,
and in effect, offense is ; for, while holding his position in
Verona and on the Adige, which was his base of defense,
it was by rapid offensive movements, resting on these posi-
tions, that he disconcerted the enemy, who, being taken
286 NAVAL STRATEGY
continually by surprise by the French initiative, was forced
on the defensive and ultimately compelled to retreat. To
the offensive belongs the privilege as well as the risks of
the initiative ; and the distinguishing value of the initiative
is that its purpose, known to itself, is one, is concentrated.
The defense, being ignorant of its opponent's purpose, to
which it is compelled to conform its dispositions, feels en-
dangered in more directions than one. Its tendency there-
fore is to dissemination, as that of the offense is towards
(Concentration.
It is to be observed that conditions like Mantua may not
always exert the like effect upon the movements of a fleet,
because ships carry in their holds much of that which com-
munications mean to an army. For example, in 1801, after
the batde of Copenhagen and destruction of the Danish
fleet. Nelson wished to proceed at once up the Baltic
against a strong Russian naval detachment lying at Revel ;
but his commander-in-chief was unwilling to advance,
leaving Denmark still hostile in his rear and unsubdued.
This could mean only sensitiveness about communications,
which for such an enterprise was pedantic; because the
going and coming would not have exhausted the British
resources, whereas the destruction of the Russian division
was of military and political importance. Nelson admitted
the risk, but urged the superior necessity of taking it. He
was overruled, and the Russians escaped. Such a rapid
dash has sometiiing of the nature of raids, which charac-
teristically disregard communications. If, instead of such
sudden attack, the purpose had been a prolonged operation,
— a blockade for instance, such as then maintained before
French ports, — supplies for the fleet in the Baltic must pass
within gunshot of Danish batteries, which therefore must
be reduced. If, besides the batteries, a Danish naval divi-
sion were there, a British naval division must balance it
also. If the Revel and Copenhagen bodies, taken together.
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 287
had equalled or exceeded the British numbers, division of
these would have been inexpedient ; and Copenhagen must
first be subdued, as Bonaparte had to reduce Mantua.
For modem fleets, the exigencies of coal renewal aggravate
such a situation.
When inferior to the enemy, an army in the field must
fall back, disputing the ground if possible, until the ad-
vanced line of fortified strategic points is reached. As it
passes that line, it has to strengthen the points in propor-
tion to their needs, to its own present strength, and to its
hopes of reinforcement To shut itself up in one of the
fortresses, as Mack at Ulm, MoMahon at Sedan, Bazaine at
Metz, whether justified by the situation or not, is a counsel
of despair, so &r as that army is concerned. The general
military situation may require the step, but it is a confes-
sion of disaster. When the pursuing enemy reaches the
line of fortified posts, the question presents itself to him :
« Shall tills point be taken before going fartiier, or shall I
leave only enough force here to prevent its garrison acting
against my communications ? "
If the decision be to besiege, time is lost ; if to proceed,
the pursuing army is weakened relatively to the pursued.
This weakening process goes on with each place observed,
but the pursuer may be better able to stand it than the
pursued. An inferior force outside, not intending to be-
siege, may adequately check a superior distributed in two
or more places, because the different detachments cannot
combine their movements, and the inferior has the advan-
tages of central position and interior lines. Moreover, the
pursuer is necessarily superior, and may be greatiy su-
perior; and as he passes on he endangers or destroys the
lines of supply to the place, the fall of which then becomes
a question of time. These considerations show both the
value and the limitations of fortified points. Their passive
strength, however great, can never bring about the results
288 NAVAL STRATEGY
which may be attained by a skillfully handled aimy in virtae
of its mobility.
War&ie at sea does not seem to present a very close
analogy to the case of an inferior army retreating before a
superior, disputing its progress by resistances which take
advantage of successive accidents of the ground, that con«
tribute to the stronger ^ form " of war which defense is.
Yet we have historical parallels, which to say the least are
suggestive. Such is that of Nelson off Sicily in 1799, with
less than a dozen battleships, expecting the approach of a
French supposed nineteen, — actually twenty-five, — and
intending to fight rather than let them occupy the places
he was set to defend ; and again, in 1805, when returning
from the West Indies to Europe with twelve ships and ex-
pecting to meet eighteen to twenty enemies. In both cases
he was animated with the same puipose, expressed in the
words, ** By the time they have beaten my division, they
will give no more trouble this year." He meant, of coursci
that his share in the whole action of the British navy was
one incident in the process of beating the enemy in detail ;
leaving the rest of the British force to finish the remainder.
This corresponds essentially with the action of the southern
Austrian force of the Archduke Charles, in 1796, which
had as its share to occupy Moreau by retreat, fighting at
every defensible point, while the Archduke himself with
the northern troops turned upon Jourdan in overwhelming
numbers.
Doubtless, too, in the first instance, Nelson had in his
mind the same purpose that he explicitly stated in the sec-
ond : ^ I will not fight until the very last moment, unless
they give me an opportunity too tempting to be resisted,"
— that is, a clear momentary advantage. An advantage is
an advantage, however offered or obtained ; whether by an
enemy^s mistake, or by the accidents of the ground that
play so large a part in land war; and on either element a
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 289
skillful defense looks warily for its opportunities to the
enemy's mistakes, as weU as to other conditions. Napoleon
is reported to have said at Austerlitz, when urged to seize
an evident opportunity, ** Gentlemen, when the enemy is
committed to a mistake, we must not interrupt him too
soon." The comprehensive rOle of the British navy in the
wars of Nelson's time was defensive, and in broad strategic
lines it followed Bonaparte's practice ; that is, its disposi-
tions were such as to constitute original advantage, to
assume the offensive promptiy when occasion arose, and to
fight at advantage when opportunity offered. So, when
leaving the Mediterranean early in 1805 to pursue the
French to the West Indies, Nelson met a convoy of rein-
forcements for Malta, a defensive measure. Pressed as he
was for time, he waited till all arrangements for its safe ar-
rival were perfected. He looked out for his bases of defense,
while himself bound on an errand of offense.
At sea, as on land, fortified posts are necessary. Their
importle is perhaps even g^ter, because th; field in
which fleets act rarely offers positions — due to the contour
of the ground — by which an inferior force by tactical dis-
positions can lessen the odds against it. The need of
refuge, and of security for resources, is greater. The old
advantage of the wind is represented by greater speed, and
the fleet speed of a few ships is likely to be greater than
that of a larger number. The more numerous the ships
of one fleet, the more likely to be found among them, not
only the fastest, but also the slowest in the two forces ;
and fleet speed is not an average, but the speed of the
slowest The fleet speed of the more numerous fleet is
consequentiy likely to be less. This consideration shows
that precipitate flight to the support of its ports may not be
necessary to the retreating fleet, especially if, as is possible,
the approaching navy is convoying land forces in transports.
Still, considering the open nature of the field, it may be
290 NAVAL STRATEGY
said that the retreating fleet, if greatly inferior, should not
let the assailant get within striking distance. There seems
reason to say that it should fall back, proportioning its
speed to that of the approach, with fast cruisers in its rear
keeping sight of the enemy, and with communication
established between them and the main body. The
enemy*s light vessels will, of course, try to drive these
off, but they cannot follow them into their own fleet, nor
can they prevent their return. Granting equal speed, the
cruisers of the pursuing fleet cannot overtake. They can
only keep those of the retreating at a certain distance from
the pursuers' main body, which will be of less advantage,
because their own presence reveals the nearness of their
main force. The retiring cruisers must not fight, unless
with special advantage ; because, if crippled, they will fall
into the Iiands of the approaching enemy. The utmost,
then, that we can say for the weaker fleet of the defendant,
under these circumstances, is that it should keep as near
tiie invader as feasible, waiting to seize any advantage that
may turn up. Haw to seize such advantage belongs rather
to the province of tactics ; as, indeed, does the whole con-
duct of such a retreat. Granting equal speed and pro-
fessional skill to begin with, a smaller number can generally
move more rapidly than a larger, and are more easily handled.
How the larger should move, in what order, how protect
its convoy ; how the smaller should conduct its retreat,
what possibilities of harassing attack are presented by
modem conditions, and the best method of making them —
all these things belong to the province of Grand Tactics,
rather than of Strategy.
When the retreating fleet has reached the outer line of
its fortified ports, — the first line of defense, — the two
parts of the defendant's force, his fleet and ports, are
imited. The question then arises of the use to be made of
the fleet. The approaching enemy is, by the supposition,
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 291
superior on the sea ; and also on land, at least as to the
particular objective he has first in view. If there be but
a single port of the defendant's, the case is very serious,
for his supply of coal becomes precarious. If the single
port is so ill fortified that it cannot hold out a respectable
time, the situation, as regards the particular region, is
almost desperate.
As, however, there is no object in discussing desperate
cases, but only those where inferiority is not so great but
that skill and activity may partially compensate for the in-
equality, we will assume that there are two or more ports
reasonably defended, in position to afford support to each
other, yet not so near together that an enemy can watch
both without dividing his fleet. The aim now of the defend-
ant's fleet — the weaker fleet — is threefold : the battleships
should be kept together ; they should endeavor not to be
shut up in either port ; and the battle fleet should not allow
itself to be brought to action by the superior force, unless
favored by circumstances. If uncertain as to the point
first aimed at by the enemy, it will take the most favorable
position for reaching either and wait further indications.
Thus Nelson, at such a moment of uncertainty, as to
whether the French fleet, escaped from Toulon, were
bound to Egypt, or to the Atlantic, wrote, ** I will neither
go to the eastward of Sicily, nor to the westward of Sar-
dinia, until I know something positive." Togo at Masampo
affords another illustration ; but less striking, because with
fewer elements of doubt.
In choosing its local base of action, its point of concen-
tration for the general defensive, of which it itself is a prin-
cipal factor, the defendant fleet should consider seriously,
among other things, which port is most likely to be the
object of the enemy's shore operations ; because, if that be
ascertained, some other position will probably be better for
itself. Thus, there were several reasons for presuming
292 NAVAL STRATEGY
that the Japanese would prefer to land in the neighbor-
hood of Port Arthur, and would attack that place. Conse-
quently, the Russian fleet, if intending to postpone battle,
or to decline it, would be better in Vladivostok ; because,
by taking position in Port Arthur it enabled, and even in-
duced, the enemy to concentrate both fleet and army at
one point, which thus became strategically, though not
geometrically, a central position, occasioning the Japanese
no temptation to eccentric movements. The Russian battle
fleet at Vladivostok would draw thither necessarily the
main Japanese fleet, and so would open larger possibilities
to the Russian cruising divisions for action against the
communications of the Japanese army. That Vladivostok
has two entrances is an additional reason.
If the first objective be strong enough to require pro-
longed operations to reduce it, the enemy's fleet will be tied
to that point wholly or in part. Even if it take no share
in the direct attack, it will have to cover the communica-
tions of its army at their point of arrival, the most crit-
ical link of the chain connecting the army with home, and
must block the use of the port to the defendant's shipping
as a coaling or supply station. Only the fall of the place
can wholly release the fleet of the assailant It therefore
will have two duties : one, to support the land attack, the
other, to check any mischief set on foot by the defendant's
navy. If the latter be wise and active, both duties cannot
be attempted without some division of the attacking fleet.
In the case supposed, the admiral of the defendant fleet en-
joys the advantage of the initiative, in that his object is
only one, however many ways of compassing it may offer.
This advantage he has, because, although his country is on
the defensive, and therefore his fleet also, the particular .
function of the fleet in the general scheme of defense is to
take the offensive against the enemy's communications, or
against his detachments, if such are made ; in general, to
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 298
divert and distiaot As against these diyersions and alarms,
the fleet of the offense has to defend. Therefore it has two
necessary objects, yiz. : the hostile fleet and the hostile
port, unless the defendant plays into his hands by letting
his fleet be caught in the besieged port, as the Russians did
at Port Artihur.
Let us suppose, for example, that the line of defense for
a United States fleet was the Atlantic coast, — with the two
ports of Norfolk and New York well fortified, — the United
States navy inferior, but still strong. If the great com-
mercial importance of New York determined the enemy's
attack there, the United States fleet being in Norfolk would
constitute two objects for the hostile navy and impose a
division of force ; otherwise, the United States navy, being
left free to act, might attack any of the enemy's interests —
trade, communications, colonies. U New York were the
enemy's objective, and had but one entrance,, it would, in
my opinion, be a mistake to put the fleet there ; but with
two, they by themselves impose divergence. The intro-
duction of wireless telegraphy will modify these considera-
tions ; but in view of weather conditions, and of the total
advantages attendant upon the initiative, namely, that the
choice of time, place, and manner is with the departing
fleet, wireless can only modify, cannot annuL
It can scarcely be repeated too often that when a country
is thrown on the defensive, as regards its shore line, the
effectual function of the fleet is to take the offensive.
Hence, in another part of this course, I have said that
coast fortresses are not essentially defensive in character,
as commonly esteemed, but offensive ; because they g^ard
the navy which is to act offensively. The instance of John
Rodgers' squadron in 1812, though on so petty a scale, re-
mains entirely in point The United States, having almost
no navy, nor army, was on the defensive ; but the sailing
of Rodgers' squadron was a step of general offense against
294 NAVAL STRATEGY
British trade and naval detachments. Consequent upon it|
British detachments had to concentrate, because weaker
than Rodgers' whole ; and American ports remained open
for the returning merchant ships. Forgetf ulness or neglect
of this consideration was a leading factor in the Russian
mismanagement of their fleet It is immaterial whether
the defensive is the original attitude of the nation, as in
these cases of Russia and the United States, or whether it
results from defeat upon the sea and retreat to home
waters. When retreat is over, and the opportunity of
harassing the advancing enemy, whether well or ill im-
proved, has passed away, the defendant fleet is tied down
to nothing except keeping the bunkers full ; a weighty ex-
oeption, it will be admitted, which we owe to steam. Still,
it is a great thing to have no other cares, to be tied to no
other duties.
On the supposition of proper fortiflcation for the ports
of the coast line, they are able to look out for themselves
during a given time. The duly of the defendant admiral,
then, is to strike at the communications of the enemy ; to
harass and perplex his counsels by attacks or threats, in
every possible direction ; to support the general defensive,
by himself taking the offensive. The skill of the admiral
or government charged with the direction of such opera-
tions will be shown by the choice of those objects of attack
which wUl most powerfully move the enemy. The history
of war is full of instances where sound military principles
have been overridden by political or sentimental considera-
tions, by lack of military skill in the commanders of fleets
and armies, or of moral courage to bear a great responsi-
bility. The object of the defense will be to play upon such
weaknesses of human nature, with a view to make the
offensive divide his forces. The impulse to try to protect
every point can only be overcome, like other natural in-
firmities, by sound principles firmly held. At the time of
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 295
our hoBtilitieB with Spain, the Nayy Department was be-
sieged with applications from numerous points of the coast
for local protection. The detention of the Flying Squadron
at Hampton Roads, as well as of a patrol force on the
North Atlantic coast which would have been better em-
ployed in blockade and dispatch duty, may be consideiied
concessions to this alarm. They certainly were not in
accoi*d with sound military principle.
The result aimed at by such operations of the defendant
navy has been styled ^^ displacement of force " by a recent
French writer on Naval Strategy, Commander Daveluy.
The phrase appears to me apt and suggestive. By it he
means that, assuming the enemy to have disposed his forces
on soimd militaiy principles, he is to be provoked, or allured,
or harassed, or intimidated, into changing those dispositions,
into displacing his forces. Over-confidence may be as
harmful as over-caution, in inducing displacement. If prop-
erly concentrated, the hostile ships may be moved to dissemi-
nate ; if correctly posted, to remove to a worse position. The
capture of the Ouerridre by the Constitution was due to a
displacement of British forces. Rodgers' sailing in squad-
ron had compelled the British to concentrate, and for the
same reason to convoy an important West Indies fleet
several hundred miles eastward in the Atlantic. There it
was thought safe to detach the Guerridre to Halifax. On
her way she met the Constitution.
I quote from Daveluy a few paragraphs:
" The maritime defensive, from whatever point of view
regarded, offers only disadvantages. It may be imposed ;
it never should be voluntarily adopted. On the one side
as on the oilier, we are led to choose the offensive ; that
is to say, to seek the enemy with the object of fighting
him. But the two parties will not do tms by the same
methods.
^^ The stronger will hasten to meet the different divisions
of the enemy, in order to destroy them before they have
296 NAVAL STRATEGY
time to injure hinL The weaker " — whom I have called
Hie defendant — ^ will seek first of all to withdraw from
touch of the enemy in order by uncertainty as to the
points threatened to effect displacement of the hostile
force, and to give rise to the unforeseen ; then he will tiy
to draw his enemy to a field of battle where his own feebler
units can come into play advantageously. So long as this
stage lasts, and until a decisive action has inclined the bal-
ance definitely, the immediate objects of the war are post-
Smed to the necessity of first engaging the enemy under
vorable conditions. In this game, the more active, the
more skillful, the more tenacious and the better equipped
will win.
** At the opening of a war especially, the offensive will
produce decisive results. If successful in anticipating the
projects of the enemy by impetuosity of attack, we general
operations receive the predetermined direction ; a situation
is created which overthrows all the enemy's expectations,
and paralyzes him, unless he succeed in retrieving his con-
dition by a victory. The veiy fact of being forced into an
unexpected situation puts him in a state of inferiority, and
prevents him from recovery, while at the same time your
own forces can be better utilized.''
This effect was strikingly produced upon the Russians
by the first successful surprise by the Japanese.
*^The chai'acteristic of the offensive is that it makes the
attack instead of accepting it ; this is evidenced in history
by the fact that almost all naval victories have been gained
upon the enemy's coast."
If, in the shock of war, all things in both sides were
equally strong, there could be no result. On the other
hand, when inequality exists, the weaker must go down
before the stronger. It is in converting inequality or in-
feriority into superiority at a given point that the science,
or rather the art, of war consists. The principles upon
which this art is based, we are assured by the best authori-
ties, are few and simple ; and they are summed up in one
gieat principle, that of being superior to the enemy at the
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 297
decisive point, whatever the relative strength of the two
parties on the whole. Thus the Russian navy in the aggre-
gate was much superior to the Japanese, but, being divided,
was inferior to the enemy upon the immediate scene of war ;
and this inferiority at the decisive point was increased by
the sudden action of the Japanese in opening hostilities.
It is in the application of sound general principles to
particular problems of war that difficulty arises. The
principles are few, the cases veiy various, the smaller de-
tails almost infinitely n umerous. Here experience enters —
experience which, under the other form of the word, eoDperi-
mentSj lies at the basis of all our science. But how shall
experience of war be acquired in the absence of a state of
war? And even amid constant war, how shall any one
man, particularly a subaltern or naval captain, find in his
own experience all, or any large portion of the innumerable
cases that may and do arise ? No one will answer that he
can so find them; but if one be found bold enough to
affirm he can, I throw myself back upon the words of great
captains. The Archduke Charles writes :
** A man can become a great captain only with a passion
for study and a long experience. There is not enough in
what one has seen oneself ; for what life of a man is fruitful
enough in events to give a universal experience ; and who
is the man that can Imve the opportunity of first practicing
the difficult art of the general before having filled that
important office? It is, then, by increasing one^s own
knowledge with the information of others, oy weighing
the conclusions of one's predecessors, and by taking as a
term of comparison the military exploits, and the events
with great results, which the history of war gives us, that
one can become skillful therein.''
The first Napoleon similarly says :
** Make offensive war as did Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar,
Gustavus AdolphuSy Turenne, Prince Eugene, Frederick
•the Great; read and reread the historv of their eightgr-
three campaigns, model yourself upon them ; it is the only
298 NAVAL STRATEGY
means of becoming a great captain and of surprising the
secrets of the art Your mind thus enlififhtened will make
you reject maxims opposed to those of these great men.
• • • The history of these eightjr-three campaigns, carefully
told, would be a complete toeatise on the art of war ; the
principles which should be followed in offensive and de-
fensive war would flow from it as from a spring."
Again he says :
*^ Tactics, evolutions, the science of the engineer and of
the artillerist, may be learned in treatises, almost like
seometiy ; but knowledge of the ereat operations of war
IS acquired by experience, and by Uie study of the history
of wars and of the battles of great captains."
There is yet another and deeper thought underlying the
advice to»study the campaigns of great commanders. It is
not merely that the things they have done become a cata-
logue of precedents, to which a well stored memory can
refer as special cases arise for decision. Such a mechanical
employment of them has its advantage, can be consigned
to treatises, and can be usefully taught to those who will
learn nothing otherwise. But, beyoiul and above this, it is
by that diligent study which Napoleon enjoins that the
officer who so lives with those men absorbs not merely
the dry practice, but the spirit and understanding which
filled and guided them. There is such a thing as becoming
imbued with the spirit of a great teacher, as well as ac-
quainted with his maxims. There must indeed be in the
pupil something akin to the nature of the master thus to
catch the inspiration, — an aptitude to learn ; but the apti-
tude, except in the rare cases of great original genius,
must be brought into contact with the living fire that it
may be itself kindled.
It is something like this, doubtless, that Napoleon meant
when he drew the distinction quoted, between the elemen-
tary parts of the art — tactics, evolutions, etc. — and the
conduct of great operations, which can be acquired only by
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 299
experience and in the study of history. This he elsewhere
expresses in a warning against dogmatizing on such
matters :
^ Such questions, propounded even to Turenne, to Vil-
lars, or to Prince Eugene, to Alexander, Hannibal, or
Csesar, would have embarrassed them g^reatly. To dogma-
tize upon that which you have not practised is the pi^
rogative of ignorance; it is like thinking that you can
solve, by an equation of the second dcCTee, a problem of
transcendental geometry which would have daunted La-
grange or Laplace."
Jominiy who fully agrees with the two leaders about the
study of history, expresses the same idea by saying that the
successful conduct of war is not a science, but an art
Science is sure of nothing until it is proved ; but, all the
same, it aims at absolute certainties, — dogmas, — towards
which, through numerous experiments, it keeps moving.
Its truths, once established, are fixed, rigid, unbending,
and the relation between cause and effect are rather laws
than principles ; hard lines incapable of change, rather
than living seeds. Science discovers and teaches truths
which it has no power to change; Art, out of materials
which it finds about it, creates new forms in endless
variety. It is not bound down to a mechanical reproduc*
tion of similar effects, as is inanimate nature, but partakes
of the freedom of the human mind in which it has its root.
Art acknowledges principles and even rules ; but these are
not so much fetters, or bars, which compel its movements
aright, as guides which warn when it 18 going wrong. In this
living sense, the conduct of war is an art, having its spring in
the mind of man, dealing with very various circumstances,
admitting certain principles ; but, beyond that, manifold in
its manifestations, according to the genius of the artist and
the temper of the materials with which he is dealing. To
such an effort dogmatic prescription is unsuited ; the best
800 NAVAL STRATEGY
of rales, when applied to it, cannot be rigid, but must have
that free play which distingaishes a principle from a mere
role.
Maxims of war, therefore, are not so much positive rules
as they are the developments and applications of a few gen-
eral principles. They resemble the ever varying, yet essen-
tially like, forms that spring from living seeds, rather than
the rigid framework to which the free growth of a plant is
sometimes forced to bend itself. But it does not therefore
follow that there can be no such maxims, or that they have
little certainty or little value. Jomini well says,
^ When the application of a rule and the consequent
maneuver have procured victory a hundred times for skill-
ful generals, shall their occasional failure be a sufficient
reason for entirely denying their value and for distrusting
the effect of the study of the art ? Shall a theorv be pro-
noimced absurd because it has only three-fourths of the
whole number of chances in its favor?''
Not so ; the maxim, rooting itself in a principle, formu-
lates a rule generally correct under the conditions ; but
the teacher must admit that each case has its own fea-
tures — like the endless variety of the one human face • —
which modify the application of the rule, and may even
make it at times wholly inapplicable. It is for the skill of
the artist in war rightly to apply the principles and rules
in each case.
It is thus we must look upon all those rules of war that
are advocated before us. The teacher who, without the
tests of large experience, dares to dogmatize, lays himself
open to the condempation pronounced by Napoleon. But,
on the other hand, men who deliberately postpone the forma-
tion of opinion until the day of action, who expect from a
moment of inspiration the results commonly obtained only
from study and reflection, who hope for victory in ignorance
of the rules that have generally given victory, are guilty of
FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES 801
a yet greater folly, for they disregard all the past experience
of our race.
I end with an apposite quotation from the Archduke
Charles:
^ A seneral often does not know the circumstances upon
which he has to decide, until the moment in which it is
already necessary \o proceed at once with the execution
of the necessary measures. Then he is forced to judge,
to decide, and to act, with such rapidity that it is incus-
pensable to have the habit of embracing these three opera-
tions in a sinele glance, to penetrate uie consequences of
the different lines of action which offer, and to choose at
the same moment the best mode of execution. But that
piercing perception which takes in everything at a glance
IS given only to him who by deep study has sounded the
nature of war, who has acquired perfect knowledge of the
rules, and who has, so to speak, identified himself with
the science. The faculty of deciding at once and with
certainty belongs only to him who, by his own experience,
has tested the truth of the known maxims and possesses
the manner of applying them; to him alone, in a word,
who finds beforehand, in his positive acquirements, the
conviction of the accuracy of his judgments." *^ Great
results can be obtained only by great efforts."
^Upon the field of battle," says the great Napoleon, ^ the
happiest inspiration is most often only a recollection."
CHAPTER XI
APPLICATION TO THE GULF OF MEXICO AND
THE CARIBBEAN SEA
THE present study of the Caribbean Sea and the
Oulf of Mexico, regarded as a possible field of
maritime warfare, discards the consideration of
the relative armed forces that may be brought
into play by any of the parties now or at any time in terri-
torial occupation; or, which amounts to the same thing,
equality of naval force between opposing sides is assumed.
The study, therefore, is one of strategy as involved in
posiUanM only ; a study which consequently takes account
of both military and commercial values. Commercial value
cannot be separated from militaiy in sea strategy, for the
greatest interest of the sea is commerce. It may be re-
called here that Napoleon defined war as being, among
other things, *^a business of positions." An interesting
illustration, or application, of this saying is to be found in
his Commentaries ; where, in discussing military operations
in a desert, in connection with his own Syrian expedition
in 1799, he names the positions of wells as being the most
decisive strategic factor in a country generally waterless.
In beginning the study of any theater of land warfare it
is necessary, first, to define clearly the outlines which limit
the subject ; and secondly, to take a comprehensive yet not
too detailed view of the natural features which exert a de-
cisive influence upon the strategic plan. The first step is
arbitrary and for the sake of convenience, that both teacher
and student may know just what they are to consider ; the
second is essential, arising from the nature of things. The
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 808
same processes, and for the same reasons, are snitaUe to
the study of a maritime strategic field. It will be neces-
sary, however, to the intending student, first to get such a
knowledge of the theater as will let him decide accurately
what does or does not necessarily belong immediately to it;
then only can he lay down the limits which he assigns to his
task. I will invite you, therefore, to accompany me in ex-
amining the reasons which lead to the limits prescribed to
our present study.
A great deal of trade and shipping enters the Oulf of
Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. Much of it goes no farther,
but is distributed through the islands and on various parts
of the seacoast. Much, however, goes beyond ; and in the
nature of things as they now are, and still more when man
shall have modified nature by running a canal through the
Central American Isthmus, the Oulf, and still more the
Caribbean, have, and will increasingly show, the character-
istics of highways of trade, rather than of the end of a
route.
The interests of nations in the sea are almost wholly
interests of trade — of carriage. The productions of the
sea, though valuable, are trifiing in amount as compared
with those of the land. Its great value to mankind is that
it furnishes the most copious means of communication and
traffic between peoples ; often the only means. By general
consent and international law it is a common property, a
great plain free to all, across which run many highways.
All nations have a common interest in all parts of this
great property ; but that interest naturally becomes greatest
at points where, for any reason, many highways meet — or
part.
In the special field proposed for our study, there are two
principal points of such convergence — or divergence : the
mouth of the Mississippi River, and the Central American
Isthmus. At the time when these lectures were first
804
If AVAL STRATEGY
written the opinion of the world was hesitating between
Panama and Nicaragua as the best site for a canal through
the Isthmus. This question having now been settled
definitively in favor of Panama, the particular point of
convei^Dce for trade routes passing through the Caribbean
for the Pacific will continue at Colon, whither it for bo long
has been determined because there is the terminus of the
Panama Railroad.
These two meeting points or cross-roads have long been,
and still are, points of supreme interest to all mankind.
At the one all the highways of the Mississippi valley, all
the tributaries and subtributaries of the great river, meet,
and thence they part. At the other all highways between
the Atlantic and Pacific focus and intersect. The advanc-
ing population and development of the Mississippi valley,
and the completion of the Panama Canal, will work together
to cause this intomational interest to grow proportionately
in the future. Among the great Powers of the world, no
one is concerned bo vitally in this progress as is the United
States ; because of her possession of one of these centers,
the mouth of the Mississippi with its huge back country,
and because of her geographical nearness to the other.
This peculiar interest, which is natural and inevitable in
virtue of proximity, is emphasized by the national policy
known as the Monroe Doctiine ; and still more hy the par>
ticular result of the Doctrine which has involved the con-
trol, administration, and military protection of that belt of
Isthmian territory called the Panama Canal Zone. Thia
specific responsibility, recently acquired and assumed, is
itself simply a later phase of the old treaty relations with
tlie Republic of Colombia, guaranteeing security of transit;
in virtue of which the United States in 1886 took armed
possession of the territory traversed by the Panama Rail-
road, in order to maintain and secure the use of the road to
peaceful traOic.
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 806
The successive political development of much of the
Caribbean region, — of nearly all of it which is not in
possession or control of the United States, or of some
European state, — has been in the past, and still continues,
so precarious as to introduce a very disturbing factor into
international relations; and this has a consequent effect
upon the military and strategic possibilities of the future.
Illustrations of recent occurrence are the dispute between
Venezuela and Great Britain concerning their boundary
line, leading to the strong interposition of the United
States; the armed demonstration by Great Britain, Ger-
many, and Italy in Venezuela ; the difficulty between the
United States and Colombia, which led to the independent
existence of the Republic of Panama ; also the contentions
between the United States and Venezuela. In the same
connection are to be cited the long controversies with
Great Britain concerning the Isthmus of Panama and its
canal, finally settled by the Hay-Pauncefote treaty.
These recent instances, collated with the history of the
seventy years preceding the earliest of them, leave Uttle
doubt that the Monroe Doctrine alone has stood in the way
of the appropriation by foreign states of much of the
Caribbean countries, in the same manner as the countries
of Northern Africa, Algiers and Tunis, have been annexed
by France, and Egypt effectually controlled by Great
Britain. Morocco also has become a bone of contentions
which have closely approached war, because there was no
one Great Power exclusively concerned, as the United
States is in America, with an established and recognized
policy like the Monroe Doctrine. The present uncertain-
ties and anxieties concerning the security of the ^ Open
Door ^ in the Far East, centering in Manchuria and around
its railroad development, proceed from the same general
cause» viz. : the political weakness of the owning country,
China, and the aggressive policies of foreign states ; whether
806 NAYAL STRATEGY
those policies are rival, as until lately was the case, or
become ** pooled,'' as is said to be the present condition
between Russia and Japan.
Such regions, rich by nature and important both com-
mercially and politically, but politically insecure, compel
the attention and excite the jealousies of more powerful
nations. The rights of stable, strongly governed states
are admitted ; and if they exercise those rights in a manner
onerous to others, the burden is usually acquiesced in and
borne until lightened by treaty or other peaceful arrange-
ment. But when the government is feebly administered,
and the probability is that it cannot endure indefinitely, it
becomes a matter of importance to other states what is
to succeed, and what effect coming changes may have
on the welfare of their subjects and upon their own polit-
ical safety. England, in 1878, helped Austria to the ad-
ministrative control of Bosnia and Herzegovina; Austria
repaid the debt by laying upon English goods differential
duties that did not before exist, and since then has utilized
the position of advantage then attained to incorporate the
two provinces, politically, with her own territory, in
the teeth of British remonstrance. This is one instance,
among many, of the way in which the interests of peoples,
and consequently of states, are mixed up in the future
disposition of countries the present owners of which may
lose political control through political incapacity. Military
and strategic conditions may draw more attention than
such economic results, but are not of greater consequence.
Such jealousies among rival nations often prolong the ex<
istence of a government that would otherwise go down
before one of the competitors, as has been notoriously the
case with Turkey, and still is with Morocco.
Since these lines were written the annexation of Korea
by Japan has supplied another instance; and the very
assurance that customs duties there shall remam unchanged
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 807
for ten years certifies also that at the end of that period
the advantage of other trading peoples will give place to
Japan's estimate of her own. ^ Manchuria/' says an in-
structed correspondent of the London Time9^ ** is dom-
inated throughout its vast length and breadth by Russia's
and Japan's rights of ownership in the Chinese Eastern
Railway. The present position of affairs clearly fore-
shadows the extension of Japanese predominance from
those thin lines of steel to ever widening spheres of
activity ; " and he goes on to speak of the fate which is
^lowly but surely separating Manchuria from the Chinese
Empire, as due to the weakness of the Chinese Govern-
ment and the consequent ^^ economic gravitation " towards
Japan, and accordingly away from other commercial
nations.
^^ There is an argument," says Sir Charles Dilke, ^^ by
which an anti-Russian policy in the Balkans can be recom-
mended, and which appeals to John Bull with peculiar
strength. It is the breecnes-pocket argument. Every coun-
try annexed, or virtually annexed by Russia, is closed forever
to our trade by means of heavily protective duties." And
again, ** There is one loss by a Russian occupation of the re-
mainder of the Turkish dominions which no British govern-
ment would willingly face. It is the loss of trada In the
Asiatic provinces acquired by Russia at the end of the last
Turkish war, where ttiere used to be a considerable Briti&^
trade, there is now none ; for it has been killed by protective
duties. Russia at Constantinople would mean our exclu-
sion from the Black Sea trade, except the wheat trade oiU
of Russia. Our commercial interests in Asia Minor are
very lam and they are absolutely jeopardized by any
further Russian advance."
Although these words of Dilke were written nearly thirty
years ago, they have lost none of their force ; because the
nations of the world since then have become rather more
protectionist than they then were. At this moment we are
1 The Man (tri-weeUy TimMM), March 2S» 1010.
808 NAVAL STRATEGY
confronted with a similar condition of national jealousies
and rivalries, of which the phrase ^ The Open Door " has
become the recognized expression. Commercial problems
change, as do those of strategy ; but the underlying prin-
ciples remain through all.
The Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean, taken together,
form a kind of inland sea, or Mediterranean. The boundaiy
lines are traced by the Florida peninsula, Cuba, Haiti, and
the Lesser Antilles, or Windward Islands, on the one side ;
and on the other by the different countries on the American
continent, from the United States to Venezuela inclusive.
In these two ranges of boundaries, as now possessed, we
may see another resemblance to the Mediterranean : on the
one hand states of European traditions, actually or rela-
tively strong and stable ; on the other, a condition of things
rising, in political results, little above the level of Barbary
Powers.
Entrance to this inland sea of America from the Atlantic
ocean is on its northern and eastern sides only, but by many
passages : the Straits of Florida, the Windward Passage,
the Mona Passage, and so on, eastward, through the
numerous channels separating the smaller Antilles. On
the western side, the unbroken mainland forbids water
transit; and the general absence of navigable rivers, or
other adequate means of internal communication, allows
only the eastern slope of the countries to be supplied from
these seas. Goods meant for the Pacific slope of Central
America and Mexico have to be transshipped by the Isthmus.
On the northern and southern shores, the basins of great
rivers — the Mississippi, Magdalena, and Orinoco — obviate
this inconvenience ; wholly or in part.
The different passages into the sea in question have dif-
ferent values, but all have some, and all must be included
in our examination. These values may, and generally will,
be affected by both military and commercial considerations,
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 809
and in any complete examination both these elements most
be duly weighed. It will often happen that military im-
portance will attach to a passage of small commercial value,
and vice ver$d. One that is very important to the trade of
a country cannot, indeed, be indifferent in the point of view
of military control ; but it may be beyond the power of the
country interested effectively to control it, and in such a
case, in war, commercial convenience must yield to the
conditions imposed by the limits of the nation's military
strength. From a military point of view, we may say that,
of the many entrances to the Caribbean, the western ones
are the most important, and that the values decrease suc-
cessively from the Straits of Florida to the Lesser Antilles.
This is true not merely as to the United States, and on
account of their relative distances from our country, but
because of the position, character, and surroundings of the
passages themselves. The military importance of such
passages or defiles depends not only upon their geographi-
cal position, but also upon their width, length, and difficulty.
A strait is a strategic point, the value of which, like that
of other points, depends : 1st, upon its situation ; 2d, upon
its strength, which may be defined to consist in the ob-
stacles it puts in the way of an assailant and the con-
sequent advantages to the holder ; in other words, in its
difficulties ; 8d, upon its resources or advantages, such as
the facility it gives the possessor for reaching a certain
point, or for passing from one of his ports to another;
upon its shortening distances, etc.
An important consideration in fixing the value of any
passage is whether there be another near it that will serve
the same purpose. If so situated that a long circuit is im-
posed upon the belligerent who is deprived of its use, its
value is enhanced; and yet more, if it be the only close
link between two bodies of water, or two naval stations, for
example, the Dardanelles, or the Strait of Gibraltar. As
810 NAVAL STRATEGY
regards the strength of a passage at sea, difficulties are
created by hydrographio conditions, and by the existence,
either above or below water, of obstacles that embarrass
the navigator, constrain ships to follow certain paths, and
perhaps afford to a fleet guarding the passages a convenient
rendezvous, from which it can move with facility against an
enemy coming from any direction. Such natural features
evidently answer to the strength conferred on a land post
by the character of the ground. A glance at the map will
show that the combination of these three conditions, nar-
rowness, length, and difficulty, are all found to the greatest
extent about the Straits of Florida and the Windward
Passage ; while the position of Jamaica, and of its dock-
yard Kingston, with reference to the Windward and Yu-
catan Passages, to the rear though somewhat on the right
flank of Cuba, regarded as facing the North Atlantic, ad-
mirably meets the requirements of a position guarding two
defiles; being in the rear, with facility for moving the
whole force in either direction. The narrowness attributed
to these passages is not in comparison with any particular
one of those between two islands of the eastern group, the
Lesser Antilles, which often are individually narrower.
The contrast is with the entire sweep from Haiti to Trini-
dad, which is traversable at so many points as to be prac-
tically a continuous stretch of water.
The command of Jamaica is further helped on the side of
the Yucatan Passage, where it is otherwise weakest, by
the way in which the shoals and cays of the Honduras
Bank force passing ships to the eastward, bringing them
more within range of Jamaica cruisers. Altogether,
Jamaica is favorably placed for watching the approaches
to the Isthmus by the Yucatan and the Windward Passages.
In consequence, by situation, it guards against invasion
from the Atlantic a frontier line of over nine hundred
miles, from Cape Catoche to the middle of HaltL In this
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 811
line there are only two breaks practicable for shipping, —
the Yucatan Passage and the Windward Passage. Of the
next defile to the eastward, the Mona Passage, it need only
be said for the present that it is at equal distance, five
hundred miles, from Jamaica and from the other British
station in the island of Santa Lucia.
The Bahama bank and islands, extending from near the
coast of Florida, along the northern shores of Cuba and
Haiti, nearly to the longitude of the eastern end of Haiti,
will have a strong influence upon the approaches to the
western passages, and must be included in the general field
for study. Except the Bahamas, there seems to be no
reason for pushing the northern limits of the field to be
examined farther to seaward than the outer shores of
Puerto Rico; nor on the east farther than the smaller
islands, down to and including Barbados and Trinidad.
Inside of this line and of Florida, nothing must be excluded
from consideration, but all points presenting possible advan-
tages must receive such degree of study as will exhaust
the question of their relative usefulness ; keeping in mind
the general principles of naval strategy already succinctly
laid down.
There is, however, one large elimination which may be
made at once. The coastline of the Gulf of Mexico, from
the mouths of the Mississippi westward as far as Cape
Catoche, offers no port the inherent advantages of which
give it strategic value as regards the Caribbean region;
while the position of this sweep of coast is farther removed
from the center of military and commercial interest than
many other ports which have both strength and resources.
For our purposes, therefore, all the Gulf of Mexico west
of a line drawn from the mouths of the Mississippi to Cape
Catoche may be consigned to isolation. This isolation is
more emphatic from the fact that Mexico is not a great
power, and consequently will not exert any great weight
812 NAVAL STRATEGY
upon the military balances of the Caribbean ; and yet has
attained to a degree of political stability which gives hope
that she will not bring upon herself foreign meddling.^
There is, further, no probability that the trade of her east
coast will receive an increase by becoming the medium to
supply the wants of the Pacific slope. This means that
the commercial importance of the eastern seaboard of
Mexico depends only upon its own natural development.
It is not favored as a center of distribution; whereas by
the opening of the Panama Canal the whole west coast of
Mexico will receive a commercial impetus, similar to that
which is now expected by the Pacific coasts of Canada
and the United States.
To the field, reduced by this single omission, it is not
possible to assign a resemblance to any regular geometrical
figure. With the exception of the one imaginary line of
demarcation, from the mouth of the Mississippi to Cape
Catoche, the outline is irregular in the extreme. Still,
upon close examination it will be found practicable to lay
down certain arbitrary lines which will serve to give clear-
ness to our conception of the field as a whole ; to which
can be conveniently referred the various points within it ;
and between which will be found, with very slight excep-
tions, all the chief strategic points.^
A line drawn from the South Pass of the Mississippi to
Colon, passes through the middle of the Yucatan Passage.
It leaves on the outside Cape Catoche and Mugeres Island,
the Gulfs of Honduras and Mosquito, the Belize and the
Chiriqui Lagoon; but, with the possible exception of
Belize, not so far off as to be of inconvenient reference.
Second: a line drawn from Pensacola through Sombrero
Light at the entrance of the Anegada Passage, leaves out-
1 Reoent erents hare fomewhmt fhrnken thia hope; bat not extin-
gaif hed it.
> See Map at end of Chapter XTI, fachig page SS2.
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 818
side it no strategio featnie of importance. It includes
Tampa Bay and all the Bahamas.
Third: a line drawn from Colon through the channel
separating the islands of Santa Lucia and Martinique —
two naval stations belonging respectively to Great Britain
and France — leaves outside it no point of probable great
strategic importance, unless it be the island of Barbados,
which is no longer of the account it once was. This line
passes through Cartagena, the Gulf of Venezuela, and the
Dutch island of Curasao. The British islands south of
Santa Lucia may be safely looked upon as having less than
secondary strategic value.
The three lines thus laid down may be considered as
forming a triangle, and this word will be used, when
convenient.
One of the first things to do is to establish certain dis-
tances in our minds :
From the South Pass to Colon is 1,500 miles.
From Pensacola to the Anegada Passage is 1,700 miles
in a straight line (Mercator).
From Colon to Port Royal, Martinique, is 1^00 miles.
From Pensacola to South Pass is 150 miles.
The angle at C is a little more than 90^.
The points of chief strategic importance, having refer-
ence to their position, strength, and resources, will now
be named. It is not intended to discuss, just here, the
reasons for the choice, nor to detail the advantages of any
port. These points are: The mouth of the Mississippi,
Pensacola, Key West, Havana, Cienfuegos, Santiago de
Cuba, Kingston, Chiriqui Lagoon, Colon ; the islands Santa
Lucia, Martinique and Guadeloupe ; Samana Bay, Tampa.
To these may be added, though of inferior importance,
Mugeres Island, on the west side of Yucatan Passage ; and
either St. Thomas, Virgen Gorda or Culebra, islands on
the Anegada Passage. Only one of these last should be
814 NAVAL STRATEGY
put down ; because, whatever the advantages of the Pas-
sage, it is so easy to make use of another that a position
upon it can always be avoided, as &r as its control is
concerned.
The selection of these as the most important does not
imply that there are no others, or that a thorough appreci-
ation of any one of them does not require a study of all
its suiTOundings ; of the points from which it can be
attacked and from which its influence may be lessened.
They are named now simply as the centers of little fields
of strategic influence, each of which has its own bearing
upon the larger field under examination. Thus Santa
Lucia will stand for the whole group of islands south and
east of it — Barbados, Grenada, etc.; Key West will in-
clude Tortugas and Tampa Bay; Havana, Matanzas and
the harbors to the westward ; Santiago includes Guantan-
amo ; while Colon, the representative port of the isthmus,
embraces the Chiriqui Lagoon and Cartagena on either sida
Since these words were written, the war with Spain has
left the United States in political possession of Culebra,
and in useful tenure of Guantanamo in Cuba. The strate-
gic effect of these acquirements, as regards situation, is to
advance the American base line, if the United States so
desires, from the Gulf Coast to this northern perimeter of
the Caribbean. It enables the United States, by proper
development, to substitute Guantanamo and Culebra for
New Orleans and Pensacola, as stations equipped for war.
By "equipped" is meant adequately fortified and garri-
soned, stored with coal and all other resources, and above
all with docking facilities. Abundant coal and adequate
docking are the two chief demands of a fleet during hostili-
ties. The great increase of size in battleships within the
last decade imposes more than ever among the resources
of a naval port depth of entrance, and as much as possible
easiness of handling, so far as currents and hydrographic
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 816
obstacles are concerned. In these respects, and in situa-
tion, both the port of Pensacola and the mouths of the
Mississippi have greatly lost value, comparatively, in the
last twenty years. Referring to our summary of the ele-
ments of strategic value in a sea position, we may say that
in situation, and in natural elements of offensive and defen-
sive strength, Guantanamo and Culebra exceed decisively
any combination of our Gulf coast ports ; that in artificial
resources most essential to war they can be made equal
to the others, although they remain inferior in natural re-
sources, as compared with positions upon a continental
coast line, which can draw without limitation upon the
national territory. In short, as to the Caribbean and
Isthmus, Guantanamo and Culebra can become to the
United States what Gibraltar and Malta are to the interests
of Great Britain in the Mediterranean and at Suez ; with
the advantage to us that they are nearer our home ports
than those positions are to Great Britain.
The relation of Guantanamo and Culebra to the general
strategic situation of the United States, as here argued,
have not received as yet definitive legislative recognition.
Discussion therefore will proceed on the lines of twenty
years ago, before these places were acquired. Reverting
to the list of ports above given, it will be noted, first, that
with the exception of Jamaica and Key West, the positions
held by powers of the first order of strength are at opposite
extremes of the field. The United States holds Pensacola
and the Mississippi. Great Britain and France are sta-
tioned in the Lesser Antilles ; the one at Santa Lucia and
other small islands, France at Martinique and Guadeloupe.
As regards the strength of these respective positions, upon
the general principles of naval strategy already laid down,
those in the small islands, three thousand miles away from
their mother countries, cannot be compared to those lying
on the seaboard of a great state with aU its resources be-
816 NAVAL STRATEGY
hind thenu The British and French positions in the Lesser
Antilles are, however, between one and two hundred miles
nearer the Isthmus than are the points of our Gulf base ;
and the current is more favorable to them, which increases
nearness.
Observe, next, that there are two advanced positions oc-
cupied by first-class powers, viz., Jamaica and Key West.
Jamaica is nine hundred and thirty miles from Santa Lucia,
Key West only four hundred and sixty miles from Pensa-
cola. In this respect, easy support from the base, Key
West has the advantage ; it has the disadvantage of being
a very small island without natural resources. As an ad-
vanced post, Jamaica certainly is much superior in itself ;
and it is only half the distance of Key West from the great
center of interest at the Isthmus. From its central posi-
tion, Jamaica can exert efficient control throughout the
Caribbean Sea. Mention has been made already of its ex-
cellent situation for guarding the Yucatan and Windward
Passages. Under its present tenure, this is rather an ele-
ment of offensive than defensive power, as those passages
are more useful to the United States than they are to Great
Britain. Key West, on the contrary, has a position valua-
ble both for the offense and defense, in the control of the
Strait of Florida, which must be centered in it.
Here is the proper place to dwell upon that very striking
military feature, the Florida peninsula and the channels
which separate it from Cuba and the Bahama Banks. The
effect of this long, low, and comparatively narrow strip of
land upon the maritime interests of the United States can
best be realized by imagining it wholly removed ; or else
turned into an island, by a deep, practicable channel cross-
ing its neck. In the latter case the two entrances of the
channel would indeed have to be assured, but shipping
would at least not be forced to pass through a long, narrow
passage bordered on one side by foreign and possibly hos-
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 817
tile nations. In case of war with Great Britain, this chan-
nel would be likely to be infested by hostile cruisers close
to a home base in the Bahamas ; the very best condition
for a commerce-destroying warfare. Protection of vessels
using this channel would exact a greater effort from the
United States than the supposed strait would, or than if
the Florida peninsula did not exist. The effect of the pe-
ninsula is to thrust the route between the Atlantic and
Gulf coasts three hundred miles to the southward, and to
make a control of the straits imperative ; while the case is
made worse by the almost entire absence of useful harbors.
There are none on the Atlantic, the most exposed side ;
and on the Gulf none nearer to Key West than one hun-
dred and seventy-five miles, where we find Tampa Bay,
which thereby receives an importance not due its strength,
resources, or situation otherwise. There is, indeed, nothing
that can be said about the interests of the United States in
an Isthmian Canal, as connecting the Atlantic and Pacific
coasts, that does not apply with equal force to the Straits
of Florida as uniting the Atlantic to the Gulf coast and
Mississippi Valley. All this emphasizes the importance of
Key West and its dependency, Tortugas, as the only strong
military points on this stretch ; and their own barrenness of
natural strenffth or resources makes only more important
Key West has then for the United States a double value ;
first and chiefly because it links together the Atlantic and
Gulf systems, protecting what should be regarded and
constituted rather an internal than external line of commu-
nication. Secondly, it is an advanced post which will
never be of the first order of military strength, but which
still will be invaluable in any forward step necessary to be
taken in order to secure due control in the Gulf and Carib-
bean, and so of the Isthmus and communications between
the Atlantic and Pacific. Though inferior to Jamaica in
818 NAVAL STRATEGY
every respect save position, it is of more consequence to
the United States than that island is to Great Britain.
These prognostications of 1887 were fulfilled in 1898 by
Key West becoming the advanced base of American naval
operations ; besides by position covering Tampa, a princi-
pal rendezvous of troops, because reached by railroad. One
result of the hostilities with Spain has been to gain the
United States a position still further advanced towards the
greatest strategic center of the Caribbean ; that is, towards
the Canal. The acquisition of Culebra and Guantanamo,
should they receive proper development, will not deprive
Key West of its unique positional value, as being immedi-
ately on that important link of our communications, the
Florida Straits ; but the development of those two positions,
by advancing our front of operations, would cover Key
West, strengthen it, and enforce its control; or, what
amounts to the same thing, would enable it to exert the
same control with fewer ships.
This is a suitable place for interjecting a remark, on
naval strategy in general, which I have intended to make
to you before concluding. My object has been a general
treatment of the subject, eliciting its principles by illustra-
tions, chiefly historical, although partly by hypothetical
cases. As was said at the beginning, all that a lecturer
can impart is the general principles^ drawn out and enforced
by illustrations. Now, the best illustrations of strategy
are, and necessarily must be, historical ; those afforded by
grand military operations on a large scale, such as Bona-
parte's Egyptian expedition, and that of the Athenians
against Syracuse, which, for the age, was on a very large
scale. Such bring out in bold relief the principles which
are to be enforced, and which are the same in them as in
other more contracted spheres.
We are engaged here in making specific application of
general principles to one particular scene of possible mari-
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 819
time war, — to the Caribbean and Gulf regions; but in
passing, and as further illustrative, it may be well to
notice analogous details in the Atlantic and Pacific, de-
pendent upon the same principles. Principles apply in all
cases ; and while they are best deduced and exemplified
from historical instances, such as those cited at length,
and others mentioned incidentally, they are also suscep-
tible of fruitful illustration through an examination of geo-
graphical conditions. For geography underlies strategy ;
a statement which is itself simply an application of Napo-
leon's saying, ^ War is a business of positions.'' In con-
trasting the geographical conditions of our three coasts,
we reinforce the conclusions as to any one of them by
the instances of the others; and at the same time may
broaden our own grasp of the general principles by making
more acute our perception of each case. Thus :
1. On the Atlantic, the United States possesses two
ports fitted for chief maritime bases: Norfolk and New
York. To them correspond certain other positions suitable
for advanced bases, such as was furnished to Great Britain
in the Mediterranean at one period, 1794-1796, by Corsica ;
at another period 1714-1782, by Minorca; and to-day by
Malta. Similar positions, advanced as regards New York,
are New London and Narragansett Bay ; and for Norfolk,
Port Royal and Key West. In addition, New London and
Narragansett give a fleet based on them a position always
menacing, viz. : on a flank of the enemy's line, supposing
that to stretch from Norfolk to New York, the two Ameri-
can ports. New London also, by comparison with Key West,
illustrates the advantage in defense, and for resources,
which we have seen attaches to a mainland position.
2. On the Gulf, the United States possesses New
Orleans and Pensacola. As a base, neither of these is
comparable to New York or Norfolk, which is to be re-
gretted the more, because, being by position further with*
820 NAVAL STRATEGY
drawn from the attack of a European enemy, they are
thereby the more secure. This relative immunity is due,
not only to their greater remoteness, but to the fact that
for such an enemy, appearing before them, the communi-
cations, whether through the Florida Strait or the Yucatan
Passage, would be much more exposed than if before the
Atlantic ports. This exposure arises from the position of
Key West and the projection of the Florida peninsula,
which thus has for the United States an offensive value,
as well as being the element of weakness for our own ship-
ping before noted. To these Gulf ports Key West supplies
an advanced base ; and the fact that it can avail thus for
both the Atlantic and the Gulf doubles its significance
and value.
8. In the Pacific at this moment we have San Francisco
and Puget Sound as established naval stations ; and to
them Hawaii serves as an advanced base, which has now
received distinct recognition as such, and is beginning to
have adequate development. The Panama Canal Zone,
when duly fortified as intended, will furnish another ad-
vanced base ; common to the Atlantic and Pacific, as Key
West is to the Atlantic and Gulf.
In this consideration of contrasts, it is also instructive to
observe that, if the entrance to Long Island Sound be prop-
erly fortified, Long Island, by thrusting the enemy's ships
to a distance, plays a part very similar to that of the Florida
peninsula which forces them to a dangerous circuit. Long
Island thus is not only defensive towards the United States
but also offensive towards an enemy.
In a general sense, for the defense of a coast having two
or more sea bases, the best disposition of a navy would be
to mass the battleships in the one most favorable to their
going out for offensive operations ; the other coast ports
being utilized for operations against the enemy's trade or
conmiunications, so as to lead him to divide his forces, and
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 821
thus to lay himself open to attack. Unless overwhelm-
ingly superior, he must divide his force or neglect some of
his points. On the United States Atlantic Coast, for in-
stance, New York seems very clearly indicated as the point
of assembly for the battle fleet, not only because of its vast
resources in being so near the industrial activities of the
country, but chiefly because, linked up with New London
and Narragansett Bay by Long Island Sound, it presents
admirable tactical facilities for perplexing an enemy and
insuring egress by the fleet. In other cases, as in that
presented to the Russians by their possession of Vladi-
vostok and Port Arthur, the point of assembly would be
determined upon consideration of all the conditions; but
there seems absolutely no reason to contravene the general
primaiy principle that the armored fleet of the weaker bel-
ligerent must not be divided.
Let us now revert to the detailed consideration of the
Gulf and Caribbean, which is our immediate subject. Hav-
ing already noted first the bases, and next the advanced
posts of first-class states, look now at the line of strategic
points — all valuable and some of the highest importance
— extending from the inferior one of Mugeres Island, on
the west, to St. Thomas on the Anegada Passage.
Of the sis points here selected, the two flank ones are
considered to be of inferior value. Mugeres Island has ex-
cellent position, but no resources; as an anchorage, it is
only tolerable and is not susceptible of first-class defense.
St. Thomas on the other hand, or any other port on the Ane-
gada Passage, has not a strategic situation that compensates
for the smallness of the islands and consequent weakness
both in resources and in military strength. While these
statements are true, both absolutely and also relatively to
the other four points of the line in question, the importance
of the Yucatan Passage to the United States might make it
worth while to obtain Mugeres Island, and spend upon it
822 NAVAL STRATEGY
the money necessaiy to give it all possible strength and
resources, if nothing better can be had. The island is
distant five hundred miles from the South Pass, six hun-
dred from Jamaica, three hundred and forty-five from Key
West, and about three hundred from Havana. It is im-
mediately upon the Yucatan Passage — here one hundred
miles wide.
The mention of Mugeres Island is retained, as useful to
the consideration of the Gulf and Caribbean problem as a
whole; but the acquisition of Guantanamo and Culebra
deprives the position of the interest for the United States
which it once might have had. The same remark applies
to St. Thomas, but in a much less degree. It remains still
a desirable position for the United States to obtain. If it
had come into her possession, in consequence of the nego-
tiations with Denmark several years ago, there would have
been matter for serious consideration whether it or Cul-
ebra were the more advantageous as an advanced base,
secondary and subservient to Guantanamo. My study of
the two, though not exhaustive, inclines me decidedly in
favor of St. Thomas, both for situation and for defensive
strength based upon topographical conditions. To these
is to be added the offensive value that resulU from g^reater
ease of handling a battle fleet, and greater security of egress
owing to hydrographic conditions. As there is no immedi-
ate prospect of the United States obtaining St. Thomas,
these remarks are useful only as serving to fix professional
attention upon the wisdom of acquiring it.
The four inner positions, Havana, Cienfuegos, Santiago
de Cuba, and Samana Bay, are distributed along a line of
land that is eleven hundred miles long, reckoning from the
west end of Cuba to the eastern extremity of Haiti, — from
Cape San Antonio to the Mona Passage ; being broken in
this stretch in only one place, by the Windward Passage,
which is little over fifty miles wide between Haiti and
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 828
Cnba. Taken as a whole, and including the various ap-
proaches that draw together in the Windward Passage,
properly so called, the route by the Windward Passage is
in places narrower than the Passage itself.
We find here, then, not far from the center of the tri-
angle, one great and almost continuous obstacle over a
thousand miles long, not to be crossed by ships except at
one passage. If this passage be strongly, held by one of
two contestants, the other's fleet, if inferior, or a detach-
ment wishing to join the main body on the other side of
the obstacles, will be forced to go round by one of the
flanks, and this inconvenience will be undergone by all
his coal and supply ships.
Passages having a situation like that of the Windward
Channel bear an analogy to bridges over a river, except
that, unless exceedingly narrow, they must be held by an
active force instead of by permanent works ; for they can-
not be closed by fortifications. If, for instance, the Wind-
ward Channel between Cuba and Haiti were two miles wide,
with anchorage depth, it could be made impregnable by
forts and torpedoes against all ordinary attack or passage.
Natural water bridges of such a character are of rare occur-
rence. The Bosphorus and the Dardanelles are a conspicu-
ous example of such, and in the hands of a strong nation
could not be forced. A similar formation is found at the
entrance of the Baltic, but it is shorter and therefore weaker ;
besides which, there is more than one entrance. Artificial
channels, or canals, are necessarily limited in width and
depth. They are, therefore, susceptible of being strongly
held as against the passage of an enemy ; but they are also
singularly liable to injury by raids or sudden attacks, inju-
ries that may make them for a long time useless to the
holder. It is therefore requisite to hold them in great force,
if it is wished both to keep their benefits for oneself and to
deprive the enemy of them.
824 NAVAL STRATEGY
When such artificial channels lie wholly within the terri-
tory of a strong state, such strong holding may be assumed.
For instance, a canal across the neck of the Florida penin-
sula could be held by the United States against all comers ;
and the strategic advantage to our own fleet of being able
to concentrate through it against an enemy having his fleet
divided between the Gulf and the Atlantic, and limited for
passage to the Straits of Florida, would be very great. An
equal enemy would not dare so to divide, but would be
obliged to yield one or the other sea. The Grerman Kiel
Canal is an actual striking instance of immense strategic
significance. It enables the Grerman fleet to pass at will,
in mass and secure, from the Baltic to the North Sea, while
an enemy divided between the two must make the circuit
of the Danish peninsula in order to unite. But when a
canal is in a &r-away country, the maintenance of force
enough to secure the transit implies the existence of a very
strong navy to keep up the communication with the mother
country. The Suez Canal, and the Central American Canal
when made, may rightly be called bridges, joining in* the
one case the Mediterranean and Eastern Ocean, and in the
other the Atlantic and Pacific ; but situated as they are,
in remote and weak countries, no single state can control
either so as both to have the use itself and deny it to an
enemy, without the presence on the spot of a large land
force, having its communications with the home country
secured, on one side at least, by a navy superior to that
which the opponent can bring against it. To control the
only line of communication between two great oceans, to
the exclusion of an enemy, forcing him to a great circuit,
like that around the Cape of Good Hope, or through the
Straits of Magellan, while you can move on an inside line,
is an enormous advantage ; but for that very reason to
retain it calls for enormous exertion of force.
When the entrance to any g^ven field of war, though
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 826
contracted, ib yet too wide to admit of being covered by
defensive works, either by holding both sides or by a cen-
tral position, control must depend upon an active force
resting upon strong positions near by. In a maritime field
this control will be exercised by the navy, which is the
active force, resting upon strong seaports. There is an
analogy to the Windward Passage in that theater which is
treated by the. Archduke Charles; namely, the region
where the Danube breaks through the mountains of
Bohemia. There the Archduke would establish the chief
fortress of the base of operations, to which he ties the
system of defensive works for controlling the whole theater
of war. He admits that there is anotiier road over the
mountains to the northward, by which the central portion
of the base, at Budweis, can be approached, and which he
even recommends as the better line of operations to an
invader for special reasons; but he prefers Enns as the
site of the chief strong post, because it is the key to both
banks of the Danube at the contracted passage spoken of,
allowing the holder to pass from one side of that great
obstacle to the other at his will; and because it has more
far-reaching influence, in that it commands the resources
of a greater extent of country and is more favorably situ-
ated for acting upon the base line, of which it is one ex-
treme. It possesses, that is, a flanking position, which
may be utilized by the garrison, or by the army resting
upon it ; an advantage similar to that which New Loudon
or Narragansett Bay would confer upon an American fleet
against an enemy seeking to control the coast from Norfolk
to New York.
There are many other entrances into the Caribbean besides
the Windward Passage, but there is none other that confers
so great a relief from an onerous circuit, and it is also nearer
to the Isthmus of Panama than any other. Therefore, the
power that controls it by means of an adequate naval fleet
826 NAVAL STRATEGY
resting upon a strong seaport near by, lies in the rear of
any force which may be operating at the Isthmus from be-
yond the sea, and flanks the lines of communication of that
force. To the United States the Windward Channel has
an additional value in being the direct route from New
York to the Isthmus ; while a European power controlling
it would receive its shipping of all kinds at the point
whence it would have the shortest and least exposed, and
therefore most easily protected,* road to Panama and Cen-
tral America. If a nation thus controlling the Windward
Channel can afford to reach out to Samana Bay at the east
end of Haiti and so control also the Mona Passage, with-
out unduly dividing its force or exposing the communica-
tions between the advanced detachment and the main body,
it will be very well to do so; for the Mona Passage is
singularly clear, and, if left unguarded, saves the circuit of
Puerto Rico. But it must be noted that the lines of com-
munication thus lengthened are very long ; and that on the
north side of Haiti and Santo Domingo there are many
ports which flank them, and, so far as situation goes, might
be used by an enemy's cruisers to annoy supply ships, etc.
Under their present political tenure, however, such use of
Haitian ports would be simply an incident to the general
question of preponderant sea power. The ports are not
fortified, and will afford to a belligerent neither local bases
nor resources.
The best naval position for controlling the Windward
Channel is undoubtedly at the east end of the island of
Cuba ; because it is near the narrowest part of the Channel
and because Cuba is so large an island that it may hope by
its resources to support powerfully the defense and also
the maintenance of a naval station. Of possible points for
such a port in that region, Santiago de Cuba is the best ;
but it is superseded in American consideration by Guanta-
namo, also an excellent position and harbor. The Bay of
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 827
Nipe, in the same longitude, on the north side of the island,
has also excellent qualities as a harbor, but it has not been
settled as Santiago has. Santiago and Guantanamo are
nearer the Isthmus, and have a special recommendation
in the way in which they lie over against Jamaica, and
are a check upon Kingston in that island, so far as posi-
tion goes.
The two points, Kingston and Santiago,^ by their situation
share the control of the Windward Passage. It may be
noted, however, that while Santiago through its nearness is
best fitted to dispute the passage of an enemy, the position
of Jamaica will take away from Cuba all use of the Pas-
sage as a through route to the Isthmus by unarmed ships,
or by inferior forces. Ships from Europe bound for the
south side of Cuba would be under the protection of Santi-
ago, as would coasters also. In a supposed case of war
between Great Britain and a country possessing Cuba, on
terms of equal forces, Cuba would block the channel to her
enemy and keep in her hands an interior line of communi-
cations; but she could not send her merchant or supply
ships to the Isthmus that way, except under strong convoy,
because Jamaica flanks the route. On the other hand,
Bermuda and Jamaica, two principal British naval stations,
could communicate only by the Mona Passage, — a road
that is three hundred miles longer than by the Windward
Passage — or by one yet farther to the eastward ; while if
Puerto Rico were held in force by the enemy, as the supposi-
tion of equal forces implies, all lines of communication with
Jamaica, and especially from Halifax and Bermuda, would
be seriously threatened. As between Great Britain with
Jamaica, and a state holding Cuba and Puerto Rico, the
advantage of position, therefore, is with the holder of
Santiaga
^ It will be remembered tbst in fhe conception of thlf disciusion Onui-
tanamo as a position is included with Santiaga
828 NAVAL STRATEGY
Since these lectures were first written, this positional
combination of Santiago and Puerto Rico, then in the hands
of Spain, has been transferred to the United States by the
acquisition of Guantanamo and Puerto Rico. The frequent
mention of communications may seem pedantic; but if
anyone will seriously meditate for half an hour upon the
anxious condition of a great fleet at Jamaica, with an equal
opponent in Cuba, and its colliers threatened as in the
supposed case, while the enemy has communication through
Cuba with both the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United
States, endangered only by cruisers having no near sup-
ports, he must conclude that the word ^^communications'*
has a meaning in modem naval war.
Let us now consider the advantage to the United States
of controlling the Windward Passage, not only under
present conditions, but with a view to their possible modi-
fication in the future. We have already noted the effect
exercised by the Florida peninsula upon the communica-
tions between the Atlantic and the Gulf, and the conse-
quent necessity for control of the straits of Florida. Let
it now be observed that the island of Cuba blocks up the
mouth of the Gulf of Mexico, leaving on either hand
entrances of nearly equal width, the Florida Straits and the
Yucatan Passage ; and that Havana, over against Key West,
but with superior natural strengfth, disputes control. From
the Gulf, Cuba projects to the eastward five hundred miles,
from Havana to Cape Maysi, reproducing thus the phe-
nomenon of the peninsula of Florida, though somewhat
longer and somewhat narrower ; separating for that distance
the Atlantic from the Caribbean, just as Florida does the
Atlantic from the Gulf, and at the same time, by its central
position, localized in Havana, standing guard over the en-
trances to the Gulf.
In a military point of view, Cuba and Haiti are prolonga-
tions of Florida, and the Windward and Mona Passages
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 829
successively give rise to the same considerations as the
Straits of Florida. The cases are as nearly alike as resem-
blances often are. But on the farther side of the Windward
Channel a political condition is encountered that affects the
military problem. Whereas in Cuba there exists a state of
things which gives assurance of an organized, civilized body
politic, confirmed now by the political relations of the island
to the United States, in Haiti the conditions of society
and of politics prevent the expectation of any solid military
or naval power arising therein, while the Monroe Doctrine
forbids any foreign country acquiring naval stations there,
except at the cost of collision with the United States.
When at war with the United States, however, such posi-
tions might be occupied temporarily.
A military seaport so established in a country inhab- *
ited by an undeveloped community, semi-civilized politi-
cally, will be open to the same criticism for weakness as
one on a very small island ; it will not have the backing
and resources of a rich and prosperous region, and so it
must be supported from home, by the sea.
While, therefore, in the Windward Channel we find
again the Straits of Florida, with its Key West in Santiago
de Cuba, — or in Guantanamo, — we look in vain for its
Havana on the opposite shore, in Haiti. The Havana of
the Windward Channel is in Jamaica, at Kingston. The
outlook from Cape San Antonio is the same; Mugeres
Island has little if any value to the owner of Havana,
though he would not be willing to see another power
take possession.
The west end of Cuba, then, by its positional advantages
has command of both passages into the Gulf of Mexico,
and so of the whole entrance. This command has its
center in Havana, which thus becomes the key to the Gulf,
though susceptible of challenge by Key West. The pro-
longation of Cuba extends this power of Havana to the
mni^maA^ f)\rMt\% tfM Atlikniic from tte CflpMiMBi i JinMB^'
\H m^\f0i P«nftjKth, Aft/lt fir> /at ft* pomtioo go«i^caiifBSB<3aiiaDL
n^ Vr fM Wif»/lw*fd (^hariML In fttr(»gbaiidB^tii]»pDrw«;
hy % f^^^ r^if^rr^ /iti Hantiftf^Ot cnn be ftnstebad auium tfa»
y/ifAfvmin^ wfttAr f/» f Uttit dehining the fSD/aaj &om tfaar
AlrAmiAf ftn/l, frjr itifi inert interpo*itii» of HaatLr fiammj^iiiia
f/it Mm9mrthimiufu m for t/i the eMtwwd m die Ifbna Fa»^
wi^A. 1ft fA>}4rf wnrrrlUt the poMMMion (A Coitt CQii£ax» tfa»
f^if^ti/^ U9 (umirtA^ im the cme eide, the Otdf of Miffrinriy
M/l //ri f>»e /yfiier t}ie wAtem of lUiti, with the adsmmiig:
T/» illfMfmte thin controlling poeition of Ctil»t let ti»
Hn\iifimt\ tlie two mont unitable harbon on either ssie of tfaft
MittMii'jh Uf the Oiilf — Key West and Mageret laland —
Uf lie in the hanrla of one power, while Hayana helongi» to
an tfttiztny^ and tliat the forces on both aides aie eqnaL The
nuiW/Tj jKiNsessing the two points must either dirxda its
Nhi|iN between the two, leaving each fragment inferior to
the enemy at Havana ; or else, koeiiing its fleet togedno^
must my far abandon control of Uio one passage or Urn
otlif^r. In short, Havana has thn UHiial advantage of ceor-
iral iKwition, viz.; ability to niovo in niUior direction with
maHw;d forr;e, and (',onmu|nnn(. ronirol in cither directioa;
whcrcHM the supprmi^d opiKinont hurt io rhooHC l>etween one
side or the other of llnvium. ttiilnan willing to take the risk
of dividing his form.
Ah regnnlH iliifa fpinQfiMit nf itlvialmi, wirrloHH telegraphy
undout)te<lly hnn fAoiliiaiD.t itto i>iiiuitiutiUnition of intelli-
gence l)etw(H«n RppAifiiiiit Untiiio \tt tlid tiatno tl(*ot, and so
far fticilitat4*s Uiptr inui'ilitu , t*u( ituiUijh it timy tluiH affect
a desired junnilfui. H *h*%>^ kmi. v.itv.^.i ii. It xUh^h not blind
the enemy*N m'onla. «ttt»« UKv;vvUi-. v.au Ui»i) >\iivlt*s8; and
who iilso, if unnMp Im u.»ivl ^ va|iLui uu-.a^gc, will by wire-
IcHs hearing pink np \\w tuv.l liial ^uiuoiUiug U in the air,
and will notify Ihph «««^(u ltv:v:l, v\hiuU will book ti iK>8ition
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 881
to interpose between the two divisions. Wireless has per-
haps increased the necessity for adequate scouting, thatis,
for the vigilance of which scouting is the expression ; for
news must be ascertained by the eyes before it can be trans-
mitted. But the principle of not dividing a force so as to
be out of sure mutual support remains unshaken, even if
modified in application.
The change in political conditions since these lectures
were written makes it no longer necessary to consider, as
was then done, the effect of Havana, and of Cuba gen-
erally, upon the communications of the United States with
the Isthmus of Panama in case of war with the holder of
Cuba. It was then noted that, in case of such hostilities,
communications from the nearest, and therefore natural,
base of the United States, from Pensacola and the Missis-
sippi, must pass the Yucatan Passage close under the reach
of Havana; just as vessels from the Atlantic coast must
pass under that of Santiago, unless content to give up their
shortest route, through the Windward Passage. Granting
equal military and naval strength on the two sides, Cuba
and Puerto Rico, in the hands of one state, as they then
were, would make militaiy access to the Isthmus in time
of war dependent, for the United States, upon an extreme
cireuit, at least as wide as through the Anegada Passage ;
after which the rest of the road to the Isthmus is more or
less flanked throughout by the position of the two islands.
In short, the possession, or militaiy control, of Cuba and
Puerto Rico, or even of Cuba alone, by an enemy of naval
foree equal to the United States, would be an absolute bar
to American influence at the Isthmus.
This is so evident, and the importance of the Isthmus to
the world is so great, that nothing more is needed to show
that the United States cannot afford to allow herself to be
overpassed in predominance of naval strength by any state,
except Great Britain; for upon naval predominance, and
882 NAVAL STRATEGY
not upon mere tenure of positions, will depend effective
control of the barrier traced by Cuba and Puerto Rico. The
general military and economical conditions of the British
Empire, its commercial intercourse with America, its inter-
national relations, and the consequent general trend of its
naval policy, evident in the changed distribution of the
fleet, make the endurance of peace between it and the
United States as certain as anything in the future can be ;
much more certain than with any other of the gpreat mari-
time states of the world. It would therefore be a mistaken
policy for the United States to push Great Britain towards
exhaustion by an attempt to rival her in a degree of naval
strength of which we have no need ; whereas her depend-
ence upon it is vital and cannot by her be neglected.
Should contention for control at the Isthmus arise be-
tween the United States and a European state, the posses-
sion of Key West, Guantanamo, and Puerto Rico with its
appendage Culebra, constitutes a formidable line of control,
affording great support and protection to routes from the
Atlantic to the Isthmus and Canal Zone, and almost per-
fect security to those from the Gulf ports. To this may
probably be added a benevolent neutrality on the part of
Cuba, facilitating the transport of material by land to
Guantanamo.
Altogether, while under existing international relations
there seems no immediate probability of the predominance
of United States' interest in the Isthmus being questioned,
or her position in the Caribbean endangered, it is most de-
sirable that military men should note and keep prominently
in view, in all its details, the strategic bearing of the long
chain of positions, from the Anegada Passage to Yucatan,
upon the question of control in the Caribbean and Gulf.
They mark the Danube Valley of that region.
The position of Santiago de Cuba, already partially dis-
cussed, is as advantageous with reference to the particular
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 838
channels near it as is that of Havana. As respects the
Windward Passage, and also the passage between Jamaica
and Cuba, Santiago has a central position, interposing be-
tween any two possible ports that might conceivably be oc-
cupied by an opponent ; and the Windward Passage is in
itself of very high importance. But while equal to Havana
in its control of its own field, it is inferior in two respects.
First, there are many other passages by which the Carib-
bean may be entered and the Isthmus approached, whereas
there are only two entrances to the Gulf of Mexico, both
of which are watched from Havana. The Windward Chan-
nel and its stronghold, Santiago, can therefore be avoided ;
with inconvenience, loss of time, and possible danger, it is
true, but still it can be done. Secondly, the commercial in-
terests centering in the Gulf of Mexico are unusually great,
greater than those of the Windward Passage, owing chiefly,
though not wholly, to the extent and wealth of the Missis-
sippi Valley. The products of this region have no clear
outlet to the ocean without passing through the gates over
which Havana stands guard.
Still, after all deductions, Santiago (or Guantanamo) as
well as Havana must be considered a strategic point of the
first importance. Taken together, and upon the supposi-
tion that the power holding them is equal in military
strength to its enemy, the two have the advantage which
naval strategy asserts for ports on large islands, of two
lines of intercommunications ; they can communicate with
each other by land and by sea. The distance between them
by land in a straight line is four hundred and ten miles. By
sea, going round west of Cuba, through the Yucatan Pas-
sage, the distance is seven hundred and twenty miles ; by the
east of the island and the Old Bahama Channel, six hundred
and forty-five miles. These sea distances are too great to
dispense with intermediate fortified ports, which need not
be of the first strength. Such ports will be wanted, not
834 NAVAL STRATEGY
only to support cniiseis that must patrol the coasts, but for
the defense of the coast itself. The narrowness of the
island will also expose it to the danger of having its rail-
way system cut by a sudden landing ; against which, how-
ever, the extensive shoals off both the north and south
coasts of Cuba impose a formidable obstacle.
A state wishing to draw the full advantage from the
position of Cuba would therefore be obliged to improve the
great natural strength, both offensive and defensive, that it
possesses, as well as to develop its resources. This done,
the island would have, to a high degree, the three elements
of strategic worth, position, strength, and resources. To
exert full control, both Santiago and Havana should be
adequately fortified and made capable of being held in force
by both army and navy ; and they should be linked together
by intermediate ports, fortified toward the sea only, the
whole constituting a system of defense for the coast, and
of offense for the off-lying sea. The details of such a
system would require long and special study, not in place
here.
Here, in passing, may suitably be interposed a comment
which I have made in other connections, viz. : that the con-
sideration of several ports of a particular district in their
relations to one another, and to their common field, has
reference to general operations of the nature of a campaign,
and therefore is strategic in character ; whereas the f oitifi-
cation and development of the particular ports, regarded
separately, the local arrangements for enabling a fleet to
act from it, or against it, resemble the dispositions of a field
of battle and therefore are tactical. This proposition has
been developed somewhat at length, when discussing the
dispositions of Lord St. Vincent for the blockade of Brest
in 1800.^ There can be cited also appositely a statement
1 See '* Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Em-
pire." Chapter XI
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 886
attributed to a Russian admiial, that it had been the inten-
tion of the Russian government to make Vladivostok and
Port Arthur the two most important arsenals of the Em-
pire, each having a fleet of corresponding strength depen-
dent upon it. If this meant merely a peace arrangement,
it would be administrative only, like the recently announced
purpose of the French government to assign part of their
Mediterranean fleet to Toulon and part to Bizerta. This
disposition might call for no comment; but if meant to
obtain in war, it is a strategic disposition, the essence of
which is to divide the fleet for action between two ports,
instead of providing two portu as bases, properly fortified,
each of which could on necessity serve the massed fleet
according to the emergencies of the campaign. These con-
ceptions, of massing the fleet or dividing it, of making the
fleet serve the ports, or the ports the fleet, are strategic ;
whereas the dispositions around each port to enable the
fleet to make any movements of defense or offense, of
egress or ingress, have reference only to the immediate
locality, and are therefore tactical. From the traditional
Russian policy, and from the conduct of the late war, we
may infer the purpose of division, based on the theory
known as the Fortress Fleet.
On the Cuban coast line there are so great a number of
harbors that there can be no doubt of finding such as
shall be in all ways fit for intermediate harbors, of refuge
or for small cruisers. On the south side there is the
excellent harbor of Cienfuegos, distant by water from
Santiago three hundred and thirty-five miles and from
Havana four hundred and fifty miles, although by land it is
more than twice as far from the former as from the capital.
Taken with Santiago, Cienfuegos gives Cuba the two
desirable points of a base on the same coast line, looking
to operations to the southward. Cienfuegos has in itself
the elements of a first-class military port, but its situation
886 NATAL STRATEGY
is mucli inferior to that of the other two. It does not
immediately command, as they do, any narrow way or
maritime cross-roads ; and although to a certain extent it
flanks the routes passing through the Yucatan Passage or
to the southward of Cuba, it is too far distant to exert an
effect proportionate to its intrinsic strength. In other
words, it is by its situation lacking in offensive power.
On the other hand, it is about midway between Cape San
Antonio and Santiago, and so seems the natural center of
operations for cruisers operating either towards Jamaica or
the Yucatan Passage, from which points it is nearly equi-
distant. For a long distance on either side, too, Cienfuegos
is flanked by extensiye systems of reefs and shoal water,
which at once suggest the home and refuge of light yessels
of all kinds, especially torpedo yessels and submarines;
which could not there be followed by heavy ships, or by
strangers without local knowledge. In pursuance of the
remarks just made, these natural features may be classed
among the tactical facilities of the port, rather than among
its strategic relations. Based on Cienfuegos, such a flotilla
would be a perpetual menace to enemies near the coast
It is interesting and instructive to note that under very
different natural conditions the same use and function is
attributed to Heligoland in the German scheme of coast
defense. Instead of a network of shoals, Heligoland is a
steep-to island, with vertical cliffs one hundred to one
hundred and seventy-five feet high, with some outlying
reefs which give a roadstead, but not a harbor. It has
been fortified with very heavy guns and mortar batteries,
and made a permanent base for torpedo boats and sub-
marines. Being equidistant, about fifty miles, from the
mouths of the three great German rivers which enter the
North Sea, the Ems, the Weser, and the Elbe, the Ger-
mans believe that the acquisition of Heligoland, which
was ceded by Great Britain in 1890, long before German
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 887
naval rivalry became urgenti makes the blockade of their
coast extremely hazardous. It will be observed that in
this conception Heligoland is brought into relation with
the whole scheme of coast defense, and of the oper-
ations of both the German navy and that of a possible
enemy. This is strategic ; while arrangements for the de-
fense of the island, — for instance, the defending batteries,
— are local, limited, and tacticaL Shoals like those which
surround Cienf uegos and much other of the coast of Cuba,
if navigable by small vessels, need no fortification.
This intricate ground about Cienf uegos extends to the
eastward as far as Cape Cruz, where the radius of influence
of Santiago is met; and to the westward to within sixty
miles of Cape San Antonio, centering round the Isle of
Pines. It was this peculiar and extensive ground of diffi-
cult navigation, joined to its remoteness, that made the
south side of Cuba a favorite resort for pirates in bygone
days. With these defensive adjuncts, with its intermediate
position and intrinsic value, there seems every reason to
rank Cienfuegos high among military ports of the second
order ; but it appears unlikely that it would be chosen as
the base of first-class offensive operations by Cuba itself.
Nor does it seem probable that for maritime advantage
alone it would offer such inducements to an enemy of
Cuba as to necessitate heavy protection against an attempt
at mere naval occupation. Its nearness by land to Havana,
and to the network of railroad found in the narrow neck of
the island, might make the position one favorable for the
landing of an expedition aiming at conquest, though the
railway facilities should promote also the concentration of
a Cuban army. In 1898, Cienfuegos was naturally sup-
posed to be Cervera's destination, as favorable both to
receiving and to introducing supplies, and to ease of
cot^peration with the main Spanish army; and, unless I
am mistaken, the idea was at least entertained in the
888 NAVAL STRATEGY
counsels of the United States of landing there for attack
on Havana.
On the north side of Cuba there is a group of fine har-
bors centering about Nipe Bay, which is apparently the
best There are also good harbors to the westward of
Havana; and on the south side^ near Santiago, there is
Ouantanamo Bay. Of these we will venture only one re-
mark, of general application : that when there are several
ports close together they must be comprised in the same
scheme of defense, as in the case of New York, New Lon-
don, Narragansett Bay, and the entrance of Long Island
Sound; but it is neither necessary nor desirable to treat
them all alike. Ouantanamo Bay, for instance, had no
value to the possessor of Santiago ; but as the enemy might
use it, as the British once did, in 1740, as a base of opera-
tions against Santiago, care needed to be taken to prevent
a lodgment. This is true of Havana and its neighbor-
hood, and so on.
The narrowness of one part of the old Bahama Channel,
on the north side of Cuba, will suggest the possibility of
controlling that stretch, if there is any likelihood that the
enemy should wish to use it. Such control would force
him to pass around the Bahama Banks, or else to go by the
south side of the island. For example, in the passage of
the United States transports through that narrow stretch,
in 1898, a strong torpedo force occupying those intricate
shoals which border the Cuban side of the Bahama Channel
would have been a very serious menace, and possible de-
terrent In the case of numerous transports, there is
always a fair presumption that a panic can be easily started ;
and Admiral Chadwick, then Sampson's Chief of Staff, has
testified to the excessive nervousness and bad conduct of
many of the transport captains when arrived off their desti-
nation. A panic once started under such conditions takes
care of itself.
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 889
In the successful attack upon Hayana by the British
fleet and army, in 1762, the admiral took the expedition
through this channel, not wishing to lose time by going
round to the southward, because the season was late. In
doing so, he had only hydrographic difficulties to meet, the
enemy offering no opposition; but, with a large fleet of
sailing transports, to have accomplished this without loss
was justly considered a very creditable feat. The whole
system of the Bahama Banks with their intricacies, lying
so near Cuba, impassable to heavy ships but sheltering
light yessels, must have strategic yalue, though just what
that yalue will be cannot be said offhand. They corre-
spond precisely to difficult country ashore, impracticable to
certain kinds of troops, and therefore useful to other kinds,
behind or upon which one of the opponents may shelter his
front or his flanks. With the mention of this long line of
reefs and shoals on the Cuban side of the Bahama Channel,
and of the Colorado Reefis off the west end of the island,
the principal hydrographic features will have been named.
Such districts favor a kind of guerrilla sea warfare. Their
strategic value resembles that of Chandeleur and Mississippi
Sounds on the United States Gulf Coast, or that of the
sea-island passages of the southern Atlantic States.
This ends the discussion of the elements of strength or
weakness in the island of Cuba itself, as distinguished from
its strategic relations to other parts of the Caribbean Sea
and Oulf of Mexico.
CHAPTER Xn
THE GULF OF MEXICO AND THE CARIBBEAN SEA
(CoTiduded)
WE have so &r discussed the strength and
weakness of the Island of Cuba intrinsicallj ;
in itself alone. There remains now to con-
sider the possible extension of its influence to
a distance, over the surrounding waters, by means of naval
power. Upon this will follow a comparison, at some length,
between the different principal centers of operations per-
taining to the Caribbean proper. These principal centers,
or bases, it may be said, are three in number, namely, the
Eastern Antilles, either collectively or individually, Cuba,
and Jamaica.
It has been said before that if the owner of Cuba felt
strong enough to reach over and control the Mona Passage,
by occupying Samana Bay or Puerto Rico, it would be
well to do so. Granting adequate naval force, the occu-
pation of Cuba alone gives command of the Yucatan and
Windward Passages, and thereby, through the inert barrier
of Haiti, extends control over all the northern entrances to
the Caribbean as far as the Mona Passage ; but it does not
include this. To control the Mona Passage also, it is
necessary to occupy an advanced post near it. This post
should be strong enough to shelter the cruisers in the
Passage, in case of the appearance of a superior force, and
should contain a sufficient coal deposit for their use. The
control here purposed is simply that of closing the passage,
not by the main fleet but by cruisers, which would stop
both the enemy's communications and his commerce, and
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 841
would insure to one's own shipping the safe use of the
route. It does not appear worth while to push battleships
so far from the Cuban base, unless the enemy's fleet should
appear in the neighborhood of the Mona Passage; for
blocking the Mona Passage only throws shipping upon the
Anegada, two hundred and fifty miles further east, which
distance also may be shortened by using the practicable
channels between Puerto Rico and St. Thomas. There is
some gain, it is true, in thus imposing a longer circuit
upon vessels coming from Bermuda or the Atlantic Coast;
but it is not great enough to warrant dividing the battle
fleet, nor sending it in a body so far away from Cuba and
the more important central position. The distance from
the Windward to the Mona Passage being three hundred
and fifty miles, an enemy's fleet might slip through the
former while thus uncovered. A squadron of cruisers ad-
vanced to the Mona Passage would resemble cavalry which
scours a country in front of an army; but a main body so
advanced, except for a specific purpose, would sacrifice the
central position of Santiago and weaken its effect upon
Jamaica and the Yucatan Passage.
The hostilities between' the United States and Spain in
1898 afforded an illustration of the effect here noted,
arising from the leaving open the Windward Passage, the
real central position of the war. Admiral Sampson's fleet
bombarded San Juan May 12. If it had been at the
Windward Passage, instead of beyond the Mona, word of
Cervera's appearance off Martinique would have been
received by it the following morning, May 18. The con-
dition thus constituted by the relative positions of the
opposing fleets, would have been that Cervera would have
to go a thousand miles to Sampson's one hundred to reach
Santiago, or twelve hundred to four hundred to reach Cien-
fuegos. Between opponents equally matched in force and
speed, such a situation, for the one which wished to evade
842 KAVAL STRATEGY
action and leach a Cuban port, was not indflBd idmfy
deapexate; but ita diaadTantage k obrioiia, as is liie advan-
tage of tbe otlier fleet in holding a oentzal poailian.
If, in addition, the ao-called Fljing Squadron had haen
with 8ampaon, or within call, inatead of in the eooBntrir
position at Hampton Boada, the American admiral would
hare had at his command ahips enou^ to aend an armored
division befofe Hayana, while himaelf retaining ioree
adequate to meet the enemj on equal terms before either
Santiago or Cienf uegos. This disposition, hy Wonlring
entnace to Havana, would have allowed the main bo^ to
leave ^be Windward Passage for a portion between Gbdt
f uegos and Santiago. There, by a reaaonablj oigamzed
scouting system, it could scarcely fail to receive news of
the enemy's course in time to intercept him b^ore which-
ever of these two porta he sought Without the Flying
Squadron Sampson could not divide ; and if at the Wind-
ward Paaaage, aa here assumed, could not, in my judgment,
take the risk of leaving the Passage, giving the en^ny a
chance to get through it, and so to Havana. The question
would again become one of scouting; but under more
difficult circumstances because of the distance of Cienfuegos
from the Windward Passage. In the Windward Passage
the American fleet would have interposed absolutely against
any attempt to approach by the north side of Cuba ; while
even the Flying Squadron from Hampton Roads could have
been off Havana before the enemy, if he had attempted to
proceed from Martinique south about, through the Yucatan
Channel.
The most plausible argument against thus closing access
to Culjan porta is that it would be purchased at the expense
of leaving Puerto Rico open. The reply is that the United
States had not shi{)8 enough to close all ports, and that
arrival at "San Juan was less detrimental to her, and less
advantageous to the Spaniards, than reaching a Cuban port
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 848
would be; while a fleet at that anchorage is vastly more
exposed to attack. The place being watched of course by
American lookouts, the news would be transmitted and the
American fleet probably on hand before the Spaniards could
coal and get away. From San Juan to the Windward
Passage is a bare fiye hundred miles.
As actually happened, the American fleet was before San
Juan, Puerto Rico, when the Spaniards reached Martinique.
Under the conditions of communication which then existed,
a resolute enemy had a &ir chance to get such a start as
would have enabled it to reach either of the southern
Cuban ports ; or else the Windward Passage, which would
haye given him the lead in a race for Havana.
The question of scouting suggests the great differ-
ence in utilizing information which has been caused by
wireless. In 1898, a cruiser before San Juan must go
four or five hundred miles to the Windward Channel to
give her news, and the fleet traverse the same distance
back to reach the scene. Now the cruiser does not leave
her station for this purpose, and the time consumed in her
voyage is saved ; which means that the fleet arrives in half
the time. Moi'eover, there is no longer the same necessity
for having two lookouts at important centers, one to keep
touch while the other carries news. One remains steadily,
while at the same time wiring. It is well, however, to bear
in mind that occasions may arise where two lookouts would
be expedient. This is just one of the things apt to be
neglected at a critical instant, unless a part of an officer's
habitual thought. In military emergencies it is impossible
to have the storehouse of the mind too full of resources
against all possible contingencies.
Two points suitable for advanced posts commanding the
Mona Passage are Samana Bay and San Juan in Puerto
Rico, on the north shoro of the island; also in the island
Culebra, a dependency of Puerto Rico. A first-class state
844 NAVAL STRATEGY
holding Cuba with a secure political tenure, having a well-
developed railroad system, and a strong army and navy,
could, without imprudence, reach out beyond, and occupy
either or both of these two points. Under such conditions,
these advanced isolated stations would bear to Cuba pre-
cisely the same relation that Key West does to the Atlantic
and Gulf coasts of the United States ; they are advanced
posts not beyond the reach of the home countiy. But
without an intermediate position such as Cuba affords,
such posts cannot be held securely by the United States,
unless having a navy overpoweringly stronger than its
enemy. It is true, and has always been insisted upon in
these lectures, that on a maritime theater the navy is the
all-important factor; but in these days a navy no more
than an army can stretch its lines of communication too
far from a strong and extensive base. Its communications
must be assured, either by overwhelming control of the sea,
making it as it were its own territory ; or else, by a well-
knit line of posts properly spaced from the home country.
When these lectures were first written, the United States
held Key West and Atlantic ports. In my judgment, if
dependent upon these alone, it could not safely have
attempted to occupy Samana ; but the case would be dif-
ferent if holding Havana, Santiago, etc. Since then the
United States has acquired Puerto Rico and the adjacent
small islands ; notably, Culebra. This has given a precision
to thought about advanced stations in the Caribbean Sea,
which was not possible in the years preceding 1898 ; and
the further possession of Guantanamo has remove4 the
stricture then passed as to the unbroken distance from the
United States, and absence of intermediate support, affect-
ing the tenure of positions such as Samana Bay, St. Thomas,
or San Juan in Puerto Rico. If in condition to contest
control of the sea with a strong navy, the United States
now has positions properly spaced to support her naval
APPUCATION OF PRINCIPLES 846
operations. It remains only to assure those positions by
adding to the quality of position, or situation, which they
already have, the two other elements of strategic power,
namely, defensive strength, and the necessary resources, of
stores, and provision for repairs and docking.
Herein — that is, in the present possession of a contin-
uous line of posts — lies the permanent advantage of the
United States, in the West Indies, as compared to Euro-
pean states, which must always have the long exposed
transatlantic stretch to cover before reaching the nearest of
their Caribbean positions. It may indeed be wise, as an
act of naval strategy in time of peace, to secure remote
points such as these, or as the British Hong Kong or the
German Kiao Chau, on distant theaters of probable war,
intending to fill up gaps as opportunity offers; but to
European countries, as to the United States in the Carib-
bean before 1898, such long lines of communication mean
either a very great risk of losing the positions, or else a
navy decisively preponderant, having regaid to aU their
political international complications. The present dispo-
sition of the British navy tells us how British European
relations, and those between the United States and Great
Britain, have affected their concern for Halifax, Bermuda,
and the West Indies ; and history has shown what a strain
Gibraltar even has been at times upon Great Britain. Port
Arthur recentiy has repeated the same story for Russia ;
and we know what the Philippines are to us, having in
view all possibilities concerning Europe and the Far
East
Of the two points named near the Mona Passage, Sam-
ana Bay is by far the better harbor, — it is an exceptionally
fine one; but as has before been said of all the ports of
this island, it must depend upon its own strength and upon
support by sea only. The political and social conditions
of the island give no hope of aid from the surrounding
846 NAVAL STRATEGY
country ; and it has no resonrces. Under the changed con-
ditions since 1898, the true military policy of the United
States is to give no excuse for occupying this position to
another state, by herself taking, or acquiring, possession for
military purposes. Malta became English only through
the French first seizing; and the present tenure of Port
Arthur by the Japanese results directly from the previous
acquisition by Russia.
The influence of Cuba as it has been deyeloped in this
discussion, consists, (1) in the command which its position
exercises over the Gulf of Mexico and the Windward
Channel, (2) in its own intrinsic strength, due to its size
and excellent harbors, (8) to its great potential resources,
which are enlarged by its nearness to the United States,
and (4) in its power to reach effectively to the Mona Pas-
sage and to Puerto Rico. This strong combination of posi-
tion, strength, and resources constitutes Cuba undoubtedly
the most important single feature in the whole maritime
field under consideration. It will be remembered that a
very great factor in this control of Cuba is the nothingness
of Haiti, resulting from its political and social condition,
yet an inert obstacle. There being no promise of any solid
national organization arising shortly within this island,
Cuba, or any great state vitally interested in Cuba, would
naturally insist upon the neutrality of Haiti, and object at
once to any of its harbors being conceded to a foreign
Power ; under conditions, for instance, analogous to those
by which the United States now holds Guantanamo. The
present possession of Puerto Rico by the United States,
would make doubly intolerable the institution of any for-
eign naval base in Haiti, intervening between Guantanamo
and Puerto Rico.
Is, then, Cuba — using the name to represent the whole
possible sweep of the influence of the island, from the Gulf
of Mexico to Puerto Rico — the key to this theater of mari-
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 847
time interest known as the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean
Sea? On the supposition of naval equality between ene-
mies, we have seen how far the influence of Cuba extends ;
is that influence so great that, if duly exerted, it will give
control of the whole, or of the greater part of these seas,
including the Isthmus?
As to the Gulf of Mexico there will be but one answer,
and that inmiediate. Granting equal strength, and as long
as such equality lasts, if Cuba be held by an enemy the
products of the Mississippi Valley must find their way to
the Atlantic Ocean overland. Cuba is as surely the key to
the Gulf of Mexico as Gibraltar is to the Mediterranean.
As regards the Caribbean, the answer is less obvious and
requires careful consideration.
The control so far conceded to Cuba constitutes at least
a base of operations for controlling the whole sea. As has
before been said of the defile of the Danube, and of Egypt,
geographical keys to a given region get their importance,
not from their inert streng^ or position merely, but from
being points whence military force may so exert itself as to
be certainly superior to an equal force not having the same
advantage of position. What, then, are the objects, or
points, to be controlled in the Caribbean Sea ? What other
bases than Cuba are there, upon which such control may
rest? How do these other bases compare with Cuba in
eflSciency for the objects in view?
In answering this last question we must consider the
three elements that condition all strategic points, namely,
position, strength, and resources.
The objects to be controlled in the Caribbean Sea are
threefold :
Ist The entrance into the sea by the various passages.
2d. The chief commercial centers, points of destination,
within the Caribbean, of which the most conspicuous is the
Isthmus, centering now at Colon.
848 NAVAL STRATEGY
8d. The communicating lines between the entrances
and the points of destination.
1. From the Anegada Passage to the southward through
the eastern Antilles, there are so many entrances that it is
impossible in that line to prevent access to the Caribbean
by holding a geographical position which controls any one
or two of them. A greatly superior navy undoubtedly
could be so disposed as to control effectively all or most of
these channels ; but this argument proceeds expressly upon
the supposition of equal forces. The conceded influence
of Cuba, on the other hand, while not reaching to any one
of the Lesser Antilles, dominates the Windward and Mona
Passages, which are much the most advantageous to ship-
ping from all the Atlantic ports of North America, includ-
ing therein both those of the United Statues and the naval
stations of Great Britain in Bermuda and Halifax. Over
the Yucatan Passage, which is the natural, and indeed the
only direct route from the valley of the Mississippi to the
Isthmus, the influence of Cuba is even more incontestable.
As regards entrance, therefore, Ciiba has control to a unique
degree.
2. The chief objectives of commerce within the Caribbean
are close around the Isthmus of Panama. If we include with
the Isthmus the trade of the Magdalena valley, we need
probably consider no other. There is, of course, more or
less trade along the whole seacoast, from Mugeres Island to
the Gulf of Paria ; but it is diffused, and there is no imme-
diate promise of such demand in the back countries as will
create new and important centers of trade. The mouth of
the Orinoco is without the Caribbean. We may, then,
without serious error consider the Isthmus of Panama as
the one great center of commercial interest; and that is
not only the greatest in the Caribbean but promises soon to
be also one of the first in the world.
Besides the commercial centers, there are also important
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES
849
military objectives vfithin the Caribbean Sea. Of these the
Uiree most important ai'e Jamaica, the Cbiriqui Lagoon,
and Colon ; the last being a. commercial as well as a strate-
gic point. Besides these chief points there are several
others of second or third rate value. The Dutch island
of Curasao has a fine harbor and is about midway between
the Isthmus and the Lesser Antilles ; its position is less
than a hundred miles to one side of the steamer routes be-
tween the Isthmus and the eastern islands, and therefore
flanks their communications. Its cession to any of the
great Powers therefore would pi-obably be opposed by
others. The city of Cartagena, in the United States of
Colombia, has the best harbor od the Spanish Main. It is
but three hundred inilee fi'om Colon and but one hundred
from the steamer tracks, which here convet^e from every
entrance to the Caribbean! its position and probable re-
sources are superior to those of Curasao. Cartagena, like
Curasao, thus flanks the routes to the Isthmus from the
Anegada Passage southward ; both are nearer Colon than
Guantanamo is, although the advantage of Curasao over
Guantanamo in this respect is very slight.
On the Yucatan Peninsula, the British possession, Belize,
has advantages as an anchorage and coaling station, and
much natural defensive strength owing to the diflBculty of
approach without pilots ; but any offensive strength could
be directed only against the Gulf of Mexico and the one
trade route to the Isthmus through the Yucatan Passage,
Jamaica being almost equally well situated for both these
purposes, it seenis unlikely that Belize can serve as a first-
class naval station ; the more so because at present it has
practically no white population and no naval resources. A
battle fleet basing itself on Jamaica would probably throw
out swift cruisers and lookout ships along the line between
the island and Belize; and those at the far end might
depend upon the latter for coal, and for certain supplies.
360 NAVAL STRATEGY
Again, if such battle fleet should, for any reason, advance
toward the Yucatan Passage or into the Gulf of Mexico,
it would, while holding such position, cover Belize ; and,
being nearer the latter, might shift its coal base there for
the time. Except these two cases, and the improbable and
wholly secondary case of extensive operations against Cen-
tral America or Yucatan, Belize cannot have great military
value for the power that holds Jamaica.
It may be said also of the Caribbean coasts of Honduras
and Nicaragua that there is no point upon them having
strategic value to a state holding either Cuba or Jamaica.
They have generally indifferent harbors, possessing neither
military strength nor resources. The same, with slight
modification, is true of the small off-lying islands in the
Oulf of Honduras and to the southward. To a nation
controlling the sea, that is, having a very decided pre-
ponderance on it, they might be utilized as temporary
coaling stations ; but they are scarcely worth the cost of
fortifjring, and only the constant presence of armed ship-
ping could preserve them from raids. Now, the presence
of aimed shipping, thus disseminated in small ports, im-
plies superiority enough to spare large detachments with-
out undue risk to the main body, which is not the case
where there is equality of naval force, as assumed for this
diHCUHsion.
Of course, complete treatment of any military field in-
volves tlie hypothesis of varying strengths as well as equal ;
but, in truth, military problems contain many variables,
and it is necessary in any discussion to assign to some of
these variables values which for the particular discussion
are constant. This discussion, being concerned with posi-
tions, assumes forces to be constantly equal.
We may therefore feel justified in saying that on the
Central American coast, from Cape Catoche — or Mugeres
Iidand — to the Chiriqui Lagoon, there is at present no
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 861
single point of even second-rate strategic importance ; while,
east of the Isthmus of Panama, the various harbors of the
southern Caribbean are represented efficiently by the two
best, Cartagena and Curasao. These two points are less than
five hundred miles apart. The second is the less impor-
tant, because much more distant from the Isthmus. Carta-
gena, from its situation, its fine harbor, and its capacity
for receiving, if not itself supplying, resources, stands little,
if at all, below the level of Jamaica and Colon. It would
be particularly suitable for an advanced base of operations
against the Isthmus. It falls, in fact, within the strategic
field of the Isthmus itself and is an important factor in it.
The Chiriqui Lagoon has over it the advantage of being
nearer to Colon.
The military and commercial objectives within the Cai>
ibbean, as distinguished from points on its circumference,
reduce themselves thus to two, namely, Jamaica and the
Isthmus, giving to the latter term the extension of appli-
cation which has been done here.
3. The third thing to be controlled in the Caribbean is
the transit, or lines of communication between the entrances
and these different objectives, within or on the &rther side
of the Sea. These objectives have been summed up under
two heads, Jamaica and the Isthmus ; including with the
latter Cartagena, and its surrounding country. Belize, if
considered at all, will come under the head of Jamaica, as
the greater part of the difficulty of transit will be overcome
by a vessel that has reached the island. Cartagena, though
on the Main, yet falls strategically within the same field as
the Isthmus.
Now, with regard to the question of transit. In a great
ocean, lines of transit between two points may be very
many in number and divergence from one another. The
same is true, within limits, of contracted seas like the Med-
iterranean and the Caribbean. For instance, a ship bound
862 NAVAL STRATEGY
from the Anegada Passage to the Isthmus might, according
to the judgment of her commander as to the dangers,
either go direct, or pass for a certain distance along the
north side, or along the south side, before striking for
her port.
If, however, the points of arrival and departure are known,
all routes meet at them, and the assailant, according to his
strength and the situation of his ports can take his stand
before one or the other, sure that in such a strategic position
the enemy's ships must come within his reach. Other things
being equal, the point of arrival is better fitted for inter-
cepting communications than the point of departure, be-
cause it is harder to get into a blockaded port than out;
but to intercept or ^^ check '' a military expedition, the point
of departure wiU generally be chosen, -and always, if its
destination be unknown.
For example, in the field now under discussion, if an ex-
pedition of any size be known to be fitting out at one of
the bases, — Cuba, Jamaica, or the Antilles, — the opponent
should take post nearby in sufficient force, if able to do so.
This applies either to an armed expedition or a large convoy.
But if the enemy be already engaged at one objective, for
example, at the Isthmus, and depends upon a continual
stream of supply ships, concentration of effort would dictate
that the opponent should be as near the point of arrival as
is prudent. This would be yet more true if the points of
departure were many, and of arrival one or few ; for in-
stance, if departures were from both the Atlantic and Gulf
poits of the United States to the Isthmus, or to some
Cuban port. Stationed near the point where the enemy's
supplies arrive, an intercepting force is not only best situ-
ated to interrupt communications, but has the additional
advantage of being on hand ready to strike a blow against
his navy should a favorable opportunity offer. A fortified
port of its own, should such exist, is of course the best
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 868
position; such as Cartagena, Curafao, or even Jamaica,
might be.
The sea wars between England and France on a broader
field may be cited as practical examples, and vindicate the
usefulness of serious study of historic instances, even
though the particular conditions have become obsolete,
as warfare under sail has. Oreat Britain, though greatiy
preponderant upon the ocean, was exposed in many direc-
tions, owing to her interests being scattered in all quarters
of the world. The points of ai-rival, that is, the destina-
tions of the expeditions which France f requentiy fitted out,
were usually unknown, and Great Britain therefore very
rightiy sought to stop their sailing by heavy fleets sta-
tioned before all arsenals. Thus when in 1798 it became
manifest that a great expedition was fitting out at Toulon,
Nelson was dispatched from Cadiz into the Mediterranean
to watch before the port which was evidentiy the starting
point ; but, learning that the enemy had got away before
his arrival, he made next for the point which from such
intelligence as could be gathered seemed most probably
that of destination. The relative uncertainty attending
the second alternative, however, was apparent in the re-
sult; and although the same uncertainty may not arise
from the same causes now, it still does exist, and makes
a point near that of the enemy's expected departure the
proper position, when it can be assumed. Togo was for
an appreciable time uncertain as to Rozhestvensky's course,
despite the advantages of wireless. One of the most inter-
esting details of Captain Semenoff's ^* Battie of Tsushima "
is the fact of the Russian wireless instruments picking up
messages between Japanese scouts, which they could not
understand, but from the brevity and regularity of which
they inferred that they were merely messages between
themselves — keeping touch with one another, as it were,
— but did not signify that either had seen the enemy.
854 NAVAL STRATEGY
The Russians still hoped that they might slip by tmseen
in the existing haze; for wireless does not see, it only
reports.
The difficulty of keeping sailing ships close to a danger-
ous coast often caused the British efforts to fail, and
strained the strength of both ships and officers almost to
the breaking point; but in one signal instance the com-
binations of Napoleon to effect the invasion of England,
which he certainly seriously intended, were foiled by the
closeness of the Brest blockade. Two or three divisions,
intended to meet and combine in the Antilles, got away;
but over twenty ships-of-the-line were ^* detained '' in Brest
and hopelessly kept from joining the other detachments.
If, however, Oreat Britain, instead of scattered interests,
had had but one, as the West Indies, the best course with
her superior navy would have been, after providing for
home defense, to station one large body in the West Indies
at the point best suited to intercept ships bound to the
French islands and to protect their own. It was always
possible and still is for a dispatch vessel to precede the
arrival of an enemy's fleet by some days, because single
ships can go faster than fleets. Thus, if a French fleet
got away with only one possible destination, a British
advice vessel could reach that destination before it But
it was upon the number of their exposed points that
Napoleon reckoned for confusing the British; and they,
recognizing the facts, sought to parry his initiative by
guarding all the points of departure.
It may happen that certain routes must in their course
pass within a known distance of an enemy's port, which
thereby has the special strategic value before attributed
to narrow passages on a route ; the port in that case flanks
the routes. If England, in the days of Nelson, had had
no interests to draw her navy inside the Mediterranean,
the French Toulon fleet could have been well watched at
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 856
Gibraltar. Jamaica has this particular advantage over all
approaches to the Isthmus ; and that against the greatest
local power in the Caribbean, namely, Cuba. Ships of
war from Jamaica, scarcely venturing out of sight, still
less out of support of their base, sweep both the approaches
to the Isthmus from the greater island. Jamaica flanks
both routes, and when to this we add that it is nearer the
Spanish Main by one hundred and fifty miles than Guan-
tanamo, and so has three hundred miles less coal to bum on
lines covering the sea in its breadth, it is seen that Jamaica
has a decided advantage over Cuba in controlling com-
munications from the edge of the sea to the objectives,
including the Isthmus. Both islands flank the routes from
the eastern Antilles, but Jamaica is the nearer.
Compared to the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica has the advan-
tage of being only half their distance from the chief objec-
tive, the Isthmus ; it is a veiy little farther than they from
Curagao. If a great expedition were fitting out in one of
the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica, of course, would not be in as
good a position for watching it as another island of the
same group would be ; but as a similar expedition from Ja-
maica could not be easily checked from the Antilles, the
fro9 and con$ balance in this particular consideration.
In the matter of controlling transit, entrance into the sea
being secured, the Lesser Antilles by position control the
eastern half, Jamaica the western; but this latter half is
decidedly the more important, because it contains the point
of arrival at the chief objective. Also, every line of com-
munication from Europe to the Isthmus must pass nearer
Jamaica than it necessarily does to any particular one of the
eastern islands.
As between Cuba and the Antilles, Jamaica being neutral,
the control of Cuba is greater. Jamaica excluded, Cuba,
in virtue of her situation, controls defensively her whole
line of communication from the Windward Channel to
866 NAVAL STRATEGY
the Isthmus, and offensively the western half of the sea.
The small islands, by position, exert control over only the
eastern half of their transit lines to the Isthmus. If, on
the other hand, Cuba be neutral, and Jamaica belligerent
against the Antilles, Jamaica has over them the same ad-
vantage as Cuba. Taking all together, control over transit
depending upon situation only, other conditions being equal,
is greatest with Jamaica, next with Cuba, least with the
Lesser Antilles.
Accepting these conclusions as to control over transit,
we now revert to that question to which all other inquiries
are subsidiary, namely. Which of the three bases of opera-
tions in the Caribbean — one of the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica,
or Cuba with its sphere of influence — is most powerful for
military control of the principal objective points in the
same sea? These principal objectives are Jamaica and the
Isthmus; concerning the relative importance of which it
may be remarked that, while the Isthmus intrinsically, and
to the general interest of the world, is incomparably the
more valuable, the situation of Jamaica gives such com-
mand over all the approaches to the Isthmus, as to make it
in a military sense the predominant factor in the control of
the Caribbean. Jamaica is a preeminent instance of central
position, conferring the advantage of interior lines, for ac-
tion in every direction within the field to which it belongs.
Military control depends chiefly upon two things, po-
sition and active militaiy strength. As equal military
strength has been assumed throughout, it is now neces-
sary only to compare the positions held by other states
in the field with that of the occupant of Cuba. This
inquiry also is limited to the ability either to act offen-
sively against these objective points, or, on the contrary,
to defend them if already held by oneself or an ally;
transit having been considered already.
Control by virtue of position, over a point external to
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 867
your territory, depends npon nearness in point of time and
upon the absence of obstacles capable of delaying or pre-
venting your access to it.
Both Santiago (or Ouantanamo) and Cienfuegos are
nearer to the Isthmus than is any other one of the first-
class strategic points that have been chosen on the lor-
dern of the Caribbean Sea, including Samana Bay and
St Thomas. They are little more than half the distance
of the British Santa Lucia and the French Martinique.
The formidable island and military stronghold of Jamaica,
within the sea, is nearer the Isthmus than Guantanamo is,
by one hundred and fifty miles, and than Cienfuegos by
yet more.
Taking into consideration situation only, Jamaica is
admirably placed for the control of the Caribbean. It
is equidistant from Colon, from the Yucatan Passage, and
from the Mona Passage. It shares with Ouantanamo and
Santiago control of the Windward Passage, and of that
along the south coast of Cuba ; while, with but a slight
stretching out of its arm, it reaches the routes from the
Oulf of Mexico to the Isthmus. Above all, as towards
Cuba, it so blocks the road to the Isthmus that any attempt
directed upon the Isthmus from Cuba must first have to
account with the military and naval forces of Jamaica.
There are, however, certain deductions to be made from
the strength of Jamaica that do not apply as forcibly to
Cuba. Leaving to one side the great and widely scattered
colonial system of Oreat Britain, which always throws that
empire on the defensive and invites division of the fleet,
owing to the large number of points open to attack, and
confining our attention strictly to the field before us, it
will be observed that in a scheme of British operations Ja-
maica is essentially, as has been said before, an advanced
post ; singularly well situated, it is true, but still with long
and difficult communications. Its distance from Antigua,
868 NAVAL STRATEGY
a possible intermediate base of supplies, is over nine hun-
dred miles ; from Santa Lucia, the chief British naval sta-
tion in the Lesser Antilles, over one thousand miles, not
less than three days' economical steaming. Oreat Britain,
if at war with a state possessing Cuba, is shut out from the
Windward Passage by Guantanamo, and from the Oulf of
Mexico by Havana. The Mona Passage, also, though not
necessarily closed, will be too dangerous to be relied upon.
For these reasons, in order to maintain communications
with Jamaica, an intermediate position and depot, like
Santa Lucia, will be urgentiy needed. Supplies coming
from Bermuda, Halifax, or England would probably have
to be collected first there, or at Antigua, and thence make
a more secure, but still exposed, voyage to Kingston. The
north coasts of Cuba and Haiti must be looked upon as
practically under the control of the Cuban fleet, in conse-
quence of the command which it exercises over the Wind-
ward Passage, by virtue of position.
The possessor of Cuba, on the contrary, by his situation
has open communication with the Oulf of Mexico, which
amounts to saying that he has all the resources of the
United States at his disposal, through the Mississippi Val-
ley. Cruisers from Jamaica attempting to intercept that
trade would be at a great disadvantage, especially as to
coal, compared with their enemy resting upon Havana.
Cruisers from Havana, reaching their cruising ground with
little or no consumption, can therefore remain longer, and
consequently are equivalent to a greater number of ships.
On the other hand, cruisers from Santiago could move
almost with impunity by tlie north side of Haiti as far as
the Mona Passage, and beyond that without any other risk
than that of meeting and fighting vessels of equal size.
If they stretch their efforts toward the Anegada Passage,
they would feel the same disadvantage, relatively to cruis-
ers from Santa Lucia, that Jamaica cruisers in the Gulf
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 869
would undergo as compared with those from Havana; but
by inclining their course more to the northward, to or
about the point Q (see map), they would there be equi-
distant from Guantanamo and Santa Lucia, and so on an
equality with the latter, while at the same time in a position
gravely to endanger supplies from any point in North
America. If it be replied that Bermuda can take care oi
these cruisers at Q, the answer is plain : on the supposition
of equal forces, it can do so only by diminishing the force
at Santa Lucia. In short, when compared with Jamaica,
in respect of strategic relations to Bermuda, Halifax, and
Santa Lucia, Cuba enjoys the immense advantage of a cen-
tral position, and of interior lines of communication, with
consequent concentration of force and effort.
It is not easy to see how, in the face of these difficulties,
Great Britain, in the supposed case of equal force in this
theater of war, could avoid dividing her fleet sufficiently to
put Jamaica at a disadvantage as to Cuba. In truth, Cuba
here enjoys not only the other advantages of situation already
pointed out, but also that of being central as regards the
enemy's positions ; and what is, perhaps, even more impor-
tant, she possesses secure interior l^nd lines of supply and
coal between the points of her base, while covering the sea
lines in her rear, in the Gulf of Mexico. For Guantanamo
and Santiago have communication by rail with Havana, while
the island itself covers the lines from Havana to the Gulf
coast of the United States ; whereas Jamaica depends wholly
upon the sea, by lines of communication not nearly as well
sheltered.
Contrasted with Cuba, Jamaica is seen to be, as has
been more than once said, a strong advanced post, thrust
well forward into the face of an enemy to which it is much
inferior in size and resources, and therefore dependent for
existence upon its power of holding out, despite uncertain
and possibly suspended communication. Its case resembles
860 NAVAL STRATEGY
that of Minorca, Malta, Gibraltar, the endurance of which,
when cut off from the sea, has always been measurable. The
question here before us, however, is not that of mere hold-
ing out on the defensive, which would be paralysis. If
Cuba can reduce Jamaica to a passive defensive, Jamaica
disappears as a factor in the control of the Caribbean and
Isthmus — no obstacle then stands in the way of Cuba
using her nearness to Panama. If Cuba can bring about a
scarcity of coal at Kingston she achieves a strategic advan-
tage ; if a coal famine, the enemy's battle fleet must retire,
probably to the Lesser Antilles.
The case of Jamaica, contrasted with Cuba, covers that
of all strategic points on the borders of the Caribbean Sea,
east, west, north, or south. Almost on the border itself,
although within it, Jamaica has in nearness, in situation, in
size, and in resources, a decisive advantage over any of the
ports of Haiti or of the smaller islands. If Jamaica is in-
ferior to Cuba, then is each of the other points on the cir-
cumference, and, it may be added, all of them together.
Santa Lucia, for instance, is essential to Jamaica. It would
never do to trust to ships straight from England for sup-
plying the larger island; an intermediate depot is neces-
sary, and the fleet at Jamaica must be assured that it will
find safe coal at no greater distance than the islands. On
no other supposition can it be kept at its station in case of
threatened scarcity. But in no sense, granting equal navies,
can Santa Lucia and Jamaica work together in concert.
An expedition cannot be safely combined from points so far
asunder; it must first be assembled at one point or the
other for starting on its mission. The French islands of
Guadeloupe and Martinique presumably could, if con-
venience required, equip the two halves of a force, and
hope to join them before fighting ; but Jamaica must stand
alone. The battle fleet that moves from the smaller island
to it must go in one body, and the constant afterstream of
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 861
BQpply — the communications — must depend upon control
of the sea. Santa Lucia cannot help Jamaica, except as a
halfway house and depot.
To attempt an expedition to the Isthmus by combining
at sea two masses moving from Jamaica and Santa Lucia,
they being at war with Cuba, and supposing nearly equal
Agg^gftte forces, would run the danger of successive de-
feats, in detail, of which one illustration has been given in
the campaign of 1796 in Germany, and of which several
others were afforded in the same year by the Austrians in
their management of the campaign in Italy, rendered
famous by the skill with which Bonaparte profited by
their persistence in dividing their forces so as to be out of
mutual support. The Russian conduct of their naval op-
erations in the recent war with Japan affords another
warning against division, when the subsequent junction
has to be effected within reach of the enemy.
Just here is seen the immense advantage of the strategic
position of the island of Cuba at the mouth of the Oulf of
Mexico. If the United States permit trade to go on with-
out interruption, supplies of all kinds, even arms, can be
obtained by Cuba without serious risk, thus constituting
the island a solid base of operations, capable of fitting out
an undivided expedition of any size, and of maintaining its
fleet in efficiency without serious apprehension as to its
communications. For instance, a line of communication
from Pensacola or Key West to Havana, supplemented
thence by rail to Cienfuegos or Santiago^ is almost
invulnerable.
This discussion, touching Cuba and Jamaica, like the
greater part of tliis general treatment of naval strategy,
proceeds upon the supposition of an equality of naval
force. So long as that continues, the relative advantages
and disadvantages of Great Britain and the possessor of
Cuba remain as stated. In the present (1911) complication
862 NAVAL STRATEGY
of European politics, the notable feature of which, from the
point of view of our subject, is the permanent menace of
the German Navy to Great Britain, and conversely that of
the British Navy to Germany, it is apparent that neither
of those two principal European navies can spare for trans-
atlantic hostilities a force superior to that which the
United States presumably can maintain, unless the latter
at the moment is troubled with hostilities elsewhere. The
supposition of equal force in the Caribbean is therefore
reasonable as well as usef uL Under this supposition, Great
Britain as regards Jamaica would have before her two
alternatives : one, to divide her fleet so far as to spare a
sufBcient force to keep open her communications with
Jamaica ; the other to abandon Jamaica to its own resources,
in the fortification of its principal ports and the permanent
garrison of the island, until such time as the navy by a
successful action should establish preponderance sufficient
to maintain the battleships at Jamaica, with a sufficient
margin over and above to keep their lines of supply reason-
ably secure, in the military sense of the word ** secure."
Under either alternative, division of the fleet or abandon-
ment of the island by it, this amounts to saying that Jamaica,
with all its advantages of situation, cannot utilize them so
long as an equal navy is based upon Cuba ; because, while
Jamaica has a more controlling position towards the
Isthmus than Cuba has, Cuba possesses over Jamaica a
control which prevents the full use of its offensive strength,
inasmuch as its communications are endangered.
This appreciation of the situation should not be allowed
to end without noting the illustration it afifords of the
value of fortified ports. Jamaica fortified can be left to it-
self for a time ; the battle fleet may even concentrate there,
and act offensively, so long as the stored resources last.
When they approach exhaustion, especially of coal, the
battle fleet must depart betimes ; and then, unless Jamaica
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 868
can stand alone, as Gibraltar once did, and as Port Arthur
and Santiago did for measurable periods, Jamaica not only
ceases to be useful, as it always would be in absence of
the fleet, but Jamaica falls and Cuban control is established
over the Caribbean in place of that of Jamaica. The fleet
previously resting upon it must operate thenceforth from a
more distant base.
This appreciation of the value of Jamaica serves also to
illustrate the practical interest of the United States in
European international relations. In case of Germany de-
feating Great Britain in a naval war, the cession of Jamaica
might be demanded as a condition of peace ; and the West
Indies no longer possess great importance in the estimation
of Great Britain, since her European relations have led her
to concentrate her navy in home waters, and to admit the
Monroe Doctrine. Like Heligoland, which she has ceded,
Jamaica is of little further use, military or commercial, to the
British Empire. The Report of the British Royal Commission
(1910) to investigate the trade relations of the West Indies
with the Empire, and specifically with Canada, reveals that
the trade interests of Jamaica incline more to the United
States than to Canada. To yield it could cost scarcely a
regret, except that of humiliation. Hence, the determin-
ing factor in the bargain, under conditions of defeat, would
not be the reluctance of Great Britain but the resistance
of the United States. That resistance in the supposed case
would rest solely on the naval force the United States could
command. Under present conditions, the opposition be-
tween Germany and Great Britain buttresses the Monroe
Doctrine ; granting a decisive victory to either, the buttress
crumbles, and the only support remaining is the United
States batUe fleet.
As to the Lesser Antilles, considered as a base of opera-
tions for controlling the other objectives in the Caribbean
Sea, we will overlook for the moment the fact that they do
864 NAVAL STRATEGY
not all belong to one Power, but that, on the contrary,
while the greater number are British, the most valuable —
Martinique — belongs to France, and we will weigh the
strength of the whole line on the grounds given for esti-
mating the strategic value of any point, namely, position,
strength, and resources.
By position, or situation, the Lesser Antilles control all
the eastern entrances, or passages, including the Anegada.
This may usefully be stated in another way, that these
islands control the approaches from Europe, while Cuba
controls those from North America. North America, with
its resources, is both nearer to and better covered by Cuba
than is Europe by the Windward IiBlands9 so that the ad-
vantage here rests with the- Cuban base. The Mona
Passage may be looked on as the point where the European
and American circles of influence touch. As for control
over the Isthmus depending upon position only, the small
islands are double the distance of Cuba from the Isthmus,
which means double the line of communications, double
the ships to guard them, and double the coal to be burned.
As to strength, the Lesser Antilles have several excellent
strategic ports. The finest is Fort de France, in Marti-
nique, at the center of the line. This position, and the lack
of closed harbors in Dominica, aid in fixing Santa Lucia
as the English base. From Santa Lucia Rodney watched
the French fleet before his well known victory in 1782.
In olden times, Barbados had the strategic advantage of
being well to windward, but is now unused. Next in im-
portance to Santa Lucia for the British is Antigua ; while
the French have a yet better position than Antigua, in
Guadeloupe and its dependencies. It will be noted that
the French islands lie close to one another and separate the
two best English.
Let us, as before, suppose these islands under one control,
though the event is unlikely. For putting forth offensive
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 866
strength, the enemy not acting against them directly, there
would be convenience in distributing the preparations
among the different ports, and safety in not haying to
depend upon one only in case of reverse ; communications
between the ports would be short and easy. So far, and in
these respects, the distances between her principal ports
leave Cuba at a disadvantage ; but in case of attack by the
enemy, the fleet of the Lesser Antilles, if decisively de-
feated, must retire into one port, which is thenceforth iso-
lated from the others by the enemy's possession of the sea.
The situation would be still worse if the battle fleet divided
and retired into several ports. The weakness of small
islands, as compared with large ones, will at once appear.
Cuba, under the same conditions of sea-defeat, could retire
into one port, the others remaining open and with free
communication throughout by land. If the enemy seeks
to blockade the other ports he divides and weakens his
fleet, in face of the Cuban ships left in the harbor to which
they have retired. A fair weighing of these conditions
seems to leave no doubt that Cuba is decidedly stronger
than any combination of smaller islands.
As to resources, those of all the West India islands for war
will depend mainly upon the policy and preparation of the
governments. Except Cuba, they are deficient in natural
resources adequately developed. Outside of direct gov-
ernmental action it can only be said that the much greater
population of Cuba will draw more supplies and furnish
more material for troops ai^d garrisons. At present, as
already noted, the resources of the United States are in ef-
fect also the resources of Cuba.
As between the three possible bases for attempted con-
trol of the Caribbean, no doubts can remain that Cuba is
the most powerful, Jamaica next, and the Antilles least.
Jamaica being where it is, Cuba cannot put forth her
power against the Isthmus or against the lines of transit in
866 NAVAL STRATEGY
the Caribbean, until she has materially reduced, if not
neutralized, the offensive power of her smaller opponent.
Upon the supposition of equal fleets, if the Cuban fleet
move against the Isthmus, or into the Caribbean, it uncov-
ers its communications; if it seeks to cover these, it
divides its force. Jamaica exactly meets the case supposed
in a previous chapter (p. 209) : ^ If, in moving upon the
coveted objective you pass by a strategic point held by
the enemy, capable of sheltering his ships — a point from
which he may probably intercept your supplies of coal or
ammunition, the circle of influence of that point will
require your attention and reduce your force.'*
In that case it was laid down that, if you cannot observe
the port without reducing your fleet below that of the
enemy, you must not divide it; either the intermediate
point must be taken, or, if you think you can accomplish
your special aim with the supplies on board, you may cut
loose from your base, giving up your communications.
Undoubtedly, the same difficulty would be felt by the
Jamaica fleet, if it moved away from home leaving the
Cuban fleet in port in Santiago or Guantanamo ; but, of
the two, Jamaica has the inside track. It is not so with
operations based upon the Lesser Antilles only, and directed
against the Isthmus, or against any position in the western
basin of the Caribbean, Cuba being hostile; the line of
communication in that case is so long as to be a very serious
comparative disadvantage.
Upon the whole, then, Jamaica, though less powerful
than Cuba, seems to deserve the title of the ^^ key to the
Caribbean." Only when Cuba has mastered it can she pre-
dominantly control the positions of that sea. But if
Jamaica in this sense be the key, Cuba has the grip that
can wrest it away. Secure as to her own communications,
in the rear, towards the Gulf of Mexico, Cuba has it in her
power to impose upon her enemy a line so long and insecure
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 867
as to be finally untenable. First a scaicily of coal, then a
famine, lastly the retreat of the Jamaica fleet to the most
available coal station. Such is the solution I believe pos-
sible to the military problem of the Caribbean as dependent
upon geographical conditions, — that is, upon positions ; con-
cerning which Napoleon has said that ^ War is a business
of positions." The instant the Cuban fleet has gained a
decided superiority over that of Jamaica, it can take a
position covering at once the approaches to that island and
the Windward Channel, keeping all its own ships in hand
whfle cutting off the enemy's suppUes and reinforcements.
The converse is not true of the Jamaica fleet, in case it
gains a momentary superiority, because the southern ports
of Cuba should be able to receive supplies by land, from the
Gulf of Mexico through Havana.
The general discussion of the strategic features of the
Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean ends here ; but the treat-
ment of the subject will not be complete, unless there be
some further specific consideration of the bearing which the
conclusions reached have upon the facilities of the United
States for naval action in the region studied.
This specific application to the United States is certainly
not the least important part of the work, since it has been
the underlying motive for undertaking it at all. For this
application, the most satisfactory method that has presented
itself is (1) to state again the conclusions of twenty years
ago, substantially as then written, in 1887, with alteration
only of recognized errors then made ; and (2) upon this to
note the changes in the intervening period, with their effect
upon the general strategic situation.
A further reason for employing this method of contrast
between two political epochs is that it tends to promote the
study of consecutive international relations ; for these are
so closely related to Naval Strategy as to be one of its chief
component elements. The attention of naval officers needs
868 I^AVAL STRATEGY
to be aroused to the necessity which there is for them to keep
a close and reflective outlook upon the international relations
of the world. In this view, it will be useful here to recall
what the international conditions were twenty-four years
ago, when these lectures were first written, and to contrast
them with what they are now.
In 1887, and for the ten following years, the United
States was growing continually more alive to its particular
interest in the Isthmus, and more impatient under the
fetters imposed upon it by the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of
thirty-five yearo before. Nevertheless, she had no assured
righta in the Isthmus, except that clause in the Treaty of
1846 with Colombia, which permitted interference on be-
half of security of transit. This permission was necessary,
to carry out the guarantee of such transit which had been
given to Colombia in the same Treaty. The guarantee and
the permission were correlative stipulations. It will be
remembered that in virtue of these clauses, in 1885, upon
revolutionary movements occurring around Panama, ren-
dering the use of the railroad precarious, a force of marines
was dispatched from the Atlantic ports, which landed on
the Isthmus and assumed control of so much of the territory
as was necessary to protect the road and insure its working.
I was there at the time and remember two incidents, each
of political significance. There being no American vessel
at Panama, nor, I believe, at Colon, the British naval oflBcer
present had landed a detachment, which was in possession
of the Panama terminus when the ship under my command
arrived there. I recall his expression of relief that we had
come to take the business off his hands, as he felt doubtful
how far his interference would be approved by his Govern-
ment, even under the circumstances. The other incident
was that the French admiral on the Pacific Coast, coming
to Panama a little later, offered assistance in maintaining
quiet ; which offer was declined by Admiral Jouett, although
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 869
the French canal was still under constmction. It was
evident to me that the French officer did not relish the
refusal ; but both occurrences possessed interest, as showing
with what increasing seriousness the attitude of the United
States towards European interference at the Isthmus was
being taken by European governments.
Beyond this contingent right of interference, in a case of
local anarchy around the Panama railroad, the United States
in 1887 had no foothold in the Caribbean. She also had no
navy. The so called White Squadron, of three protected
cruisers, had but just been commissioned. Great Britain
and France were still the two chief naval states, and both
had exactly the same possessions in the Caribbean that they
now have. Spain still held her immemorial possession of
Cuba and Puerto Rico. The (jerman navy, like the Ameri-
can, was substantially non-existent. It had been begun ;
but neither in fact nor in intention was it yet one of the
great navies of the world. The first Emperor, William I.,
did not die until 1888 ; Bismarck's power was unshaken ;
and the experience of both these statesmen tended to fasten
their attention chiefly upon Europe as the scene of Grerman
diplomacy, and upon the army rather than the navy as the
instrument of German power. The (German naval develop-
ment we now see was not even suspected, any more than
was the military eminence of Japan. Since then, the pres-
ent international paralysis of Russia has freed Germany
from apprehensions of the Franco-Russian alliance, to an
extent which has facilitated the huge German naval expen-
ditures of to-day. In 1887 this paralysis did not exist.
Despite obvious weaknesses, the Russian autocracy was
unshaken then by mtemal dissensions ; and, owing to the
position of Russia, Russian military streng^ was tradi-
tionally an immense factor in German calculations. Briefly,
it is the defeat of Russia by Japan, and the consequent
revolutionary movement in Russia, which have assisted
870 NAVAL STRATEGY
Grermany so to enlaige her navy as to overpass that of the
United States. If this be so, and I think it surely is, of
what international shifting of balances can it be affirmed
that it is too remote to concern the naval strategist?
Internationally, in 1887, the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty still
bound the United States to share control of an Isthmian
Canal with Great Britain. The two states were to guar-
antee mutually the neutrality of any canal, which it seemed
in 1850 would be built by American enterprise, if built at
all. Since 1887, the date of these lectures, the Clayton-
Bulwer Treaty has yielded to the Hay-Pauncefote, which
leaves the constructing of the Canal and the guarantee of
its neutrality to the United States alone. From being with-
out possessions in the Caribbean, the United States has
now political control of the Canal Zone, with qualified
exceptions in the cities of Colon and Panama. The Zone
is to be fortified, and the United States besides has acquired
Guantanamo and Puerto Rico, with the adjacent harbor of
Culebra. She has now a navy, which a year ago was second
only to the British. A secondary naval position so &r was,
and is, natural; and the less unacceptable because Great
Britain, not by formal instrument, but by evident purpose,
has abandoned entirely all contestation of predominant
American interest and control in the Caribbean.
The "Manifesto" of the Unionist Reveille in Great
Britain, a movement intended to promote the sea power
and imperial development of the Empire, uses the following
expression: "By the Japanese Alliance, by the Indian
Empire, by the Egyptian occupation, by support of the
Monroe Doctrine^ British Sea Power has repeatedly within
the last few years guaranteed the wages of Lancashire." ^
The words by me italicized indicate what may be presumed
a popular recognition of this policy, as standing on grounds
similar to the others recited.
1 The Mail, (Tri- Weekly Timet), October 19, 19ia
APPUCATION OF PRINCIPLES 871
This change of British policy is due largely, if not deci-
sively, or even solely, to the growth of the German Navy;
and therefore ultimately, if our previous analysis be correct,
to the defeat of Russia by Great Britain's ally, Japan. It
is to the war in the Far East that is due the full develop-
ment of this great factor, the German navy, which now
both in actual power and declared purpose is, and will
continue, superior to that of the United States. In the
intention of the United States Government, as far as shown
by propositions or appropriations, the purpose as yet is to
allow Germany to keep the lead she now has, and to
increase it in the future. France meantime, since 1887,
has receded from the second to the fourth or fifth place
in the order of naval states.
The significant feature in this shifting of naval power is
that it corresponds to the increase of national power, as
manifested in the raw material of population and wealth,
achieved by Germany since 1879, when the present (German
industrial and commercial evolution began* This evolu-
tion has already brought (Germany into sharp rivalry
with Great Britain. In maritime commerce the second
place among European states is now occupied by a nation
which to an enormous population and industries adds
but little in useful external possessions; while France,
which had and has an abundance of these, is supplanted as
a' naval power. The commercial and naval development of
Grermany, combined with the relative smallness and poverty
of her outlying possessions, is one of the universal &ctors
in the international relations of to-day. It constitutes
a national impulse, already recognized, which, like other
forces, will take the line of least resistance; but until
that line is definitely indicated, it may be found in any
part of the world. Consequently, one of the features
of the strategic conditions of the Oulf and Caribbean,
SB well as of most other parts of the world, is that
872 NAVAL STRATEGY
the German fleet is enperior to eveiy other, except Hiat
of Great BritaiiL
Leaving here the question of the contrast in international
conditions between 1887 and 1911, we will proceed to con-
trast the positions of the United States in the Gulf and
Caribbean at the same two dates.
In 1887, the positional hold of the United States in those
waters was stated thus:
** The interest of the United States in the Central American
Isthmus and Canal is admitted by men of all classes. Put-
ting aside the question of miUtaiy preparation, which is
akumingly out of proportion to our talk, the strategic
situation of the United States is as follows:
**0n the Gulf of Mexico are two first-class strategic
points — the mouth of the Mississippi and Pensac^.
They have their weaknesses, which must be strengthened,
or * fortified;' but thev can be made points of much
strength. The distance between them is not great; and by
utiliiSig the hydrographic advantages of the intervening
coast line, for the operation of torpedo-vessels and sub-
marines, these two ports could be kept in effective com-
munication by sea, and together form a base.
^^ Key West is an advanced post at a critically important
Eoint. It is dependent upon the sea for its communications ;
ut, for a fleet which is not hopelessly weaker than its enemy,
it can be made a safe harbor to coal or repair. Tampa Bay,
within two hundred miles, is a railroad terminus and a
good harbor. Counting the North West Channel to Key
West, although that is not practicable for large ships, Key
West has two distinct lines of supply — from the Atlantic
and from the Gulf — while the distance the Keys project to
the westward, about thirty miles, will lay on an enemy the
necessity of some division of his ships to watch both these
lines. The lumpy nature of the bottom for some distance
to the eastward will also favor the lighter vessels and local
knowledge of the defendant, when running in supplies.
" Still, when all that can be said in favor of Key West
has been said, it is not possible to put it in the first rank of
military ports, because of its deficiency in natural strength
and entire lack of natural resources, as well as of its
anchorage exposed to gun fire from the sea. While its
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 878
situation on the Straits of Florida makes it of the first
consequence to the United States, which has not one other
there, that very situation, at the extremity of a long salient
with no perfectly secure line of communications either by
land or by water, demands in a post so exposed an inherent
strength that Key West has not ; as Gibndtar for instance
has had, and in great measure still has. A United States
fiieet operating in the Straits of Florida, against an enemy
of equal strength but better based, could never have Key
West off its mind — it would lose freedom of maneuver.
If a bold offensive stroke should be thought of, requiring
an absence of say a week or ten days, the fear would be
always present as to what the enemy might do while the
fleet was away.
^ It is this weakness of Key West and the difficulty of
keeping up its supplies that justify to me the holding of
the Dry Tortugas, which I once thought useless. Two
points of supply make it more difficult for an enemy to
prevent the communications of either with the continent,
and so allow the fleet resting upon them more freedom of
maneuver. An enemy wishing to force action can do so if
he gets between a fleet and its coal, for a fleet, like an
army, has got to fight if its communications are at stake ;
therefore, it is desirable to have more than one coal station
on any frontier of operations. With Key West alone, an
enemy might force our fleet either to fight or to retire
upon Pensacola. Tortugas, if it can be held, is on the
Straits, allows exit in more than one direction, and is far
enough from Key West to embarrass the enemy somewhat;
though doubtless a greater distance would be better.
** The Florida Strait is the only water communication be-
tween the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States ;
unless indeed the alternative be embraced of passing south
of Cuba, by the Windward Passage, and through the
Yucatan, as Dutch fleets once went round about north of
the British islands when they found the English Channel
too dangerous. A fleet of twelve ships well based in the
Straits, as at Havana, could contend on terms of advantage
with a much larger number divided between the Atlantic
and Gulf coasts. In virtue of its situation, and with a
proper scouting system, such a fleet should be able to
prevent the junction of American divisions starting from,
say, Pensacola and Norfolk ; should be able to meet and
874 NAVAL STRATEGY
fight them sepanitely ; and this, notwithstandinfi^ the facil-
ities for combining such a movement conferred by steam
and telegraph. Equally with the above, a United States
fl^eet resting upon Key West, if duly fortified, will prevent
a somewhat superior enemv from dividing his force between
Uie Atlantic and the Gulf ; and indeed will compel him to
keep his ships united, because, if divided for any reason,
and in any directions, even upon a single coast, they may
be attacked in detail This necessity of remaining unitea
restricts greatly the scope of offensive operations open to
an enemy on a coast. The impracticabUity under such
circumstances of acting simultaneously against the Gulf
and the Atlantic is obvious ; but this is only the supreme
illustration of the effect exercised by a concentratea body
centrally placed.
«« These considerations show the inalienable military im-
portance of Key West due to situation, which is the pri-
mary requisite of strategic value. The importance is of the
same kind, though much greater in degree, that is found to
attach to all capes in coast war&re; the importance at-
taching to salients, because of the natural weakness they
constitute in forcing a route, or a position, out towards
the enemy. For this reason they are points of particular
exposure to one side, demanding fortification, and of par-
ticular control to the other. Both reasons contribute to
their importance, which becomes immensely emphasized
when, as in the peninsula of Florida and that ot Korea,
they cannot well be avoided by a circuitous route. Com-
mercially, the strait is no less important to the United
States. The city of New Orleans is the second city for
exports in the United States, the fifth for imports. It has
outlets to the ocean and to the Caribbean, both of which
may be commanded from the Straits of Florida ; and if ac-
cess to the Atlantic can be had by rail, though at loss and
inconvenience, it is not so with the road to the Isthmus."
From all these considerations, somewhat amplified from
the brief summary of them made in 1887, it appears that
Key West was then and is inalienably, by situation, a place
of the utmost importance ; but that it also was then, as it
is now, deficient in natural resources and in the natural
defensive strength^ which, while most desirable in any mill-
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 875
tary port, is particularly essential to one so exposed by its
saliency.
The conclusions of 1887 about Key West were stated as
follows :
*^ It is evident that the United States, owing to the weak-
ness of her base upon the Gulf, and to the fact that
she has no solid possessions in the Caribbean Sea, is not
only at a great disadvantage, from the military point of
view, for asserting her influence at the Isthmus, but is ex-
Eosed to serious direct injury in the mere maintenance of
er existing home interests, dependent as they are upon
free access to the ocean and the Caribbean through the
Straits of Florida and the Yucatan Passage.
*^ The remedy for these evils, if their existence be granted,
is a subject that belongs to the province of our statesmen.
Nevertheless, while the applying of any remedy is primarily
a political question, the character of the remedy to be
applied, being intended to cure military evils, must be
determined by military considerations."
That is to say, military and naval men, from their habit
of mind and their acquirements, should be the most com-
petent advisers to the statesmen of a country, to indicate to
them what positions are most profitable to obtain by the con-
duct of diplomacy, as in the case of Heligoland, Cyprus,
Hong Kong, Hawaii, Kiao Chau, and others ; or as the result
of a successful war, as in the instances of Malta, Gibraltar,
Guantanamo, Culebra, and the Philippines. An accurate
understanding of the principles upon which such recom-
mendations are to be founded can be reached only by pre-
vious careful preparation, by previous acquaintance with
historical antecedents, and by studies such as that which
has been pursued here. It may be added, though a reiter-
ation of what has already been said, that a sustained famil-
iarity with the international relations of the day, as well as
an historical acquaintance with the political history of the
past three centuries, is essential to an officer's equipment
for such duties.
876 NAVAL STRATEGY
In final snccinct summary, the general conclusion in
1887 was that the Gulf base of the United States, as con-
stituted at that time by the Mississippi, Pensacola, and the
advanced post Key West, was weak, as compared with
the positions held by other nations for the control of the
Caribbean Sea, and of that especial point of vital importance
to the United States, the Isthmus of Panama. Further,
it was intimated, cautiously but clearly, that positions
corresponding to Cuba and Puerto Rico — that is, ports
supporting control of the Windward and Mona Passages,
— were essential to the establishment of the positional
advantage needed by the United States. Stress was laid
upon the long barrier constituted by Cuba and Haiti, if
reinforced by control of the passages named ; and, withal,
insistence was constant upon the necessity for an adequate
navy, without which mere positions are mert and ineffec-
tive tenures. The defensive weakness of Key West, not-
withstanding its strong offensive situation, was emphasized,
as enforcing the need of other positions, and it was evident
that whatever might still be said in favor of the traditional
claims of Pensacola and the Mississippi, their relative re-
moteness placed them at disadvantage when contrasted
with Jamaica and the south shore of Cuba. The Gulf
ports were in fact substantially as distant from the Isthmus
as are Martinique and Santa Lucia ; they were more shut
off from the great ocean ; and the route from them to the
Isthmus passed closer under the reach of Cuba. The re-
mark may be interjected here that the great advances in
the size of battleships can scarcely fail to affect unfavor-
ably Pensacola and the Mississippi, as compared with
Atlantic ports, and with Guantanamo; on account of
hydrographic diflBculties, and of those arising from an
inevitable increase of draught of water, corresponding to
the increased dimensions. What may be the exact effect
upon the ports named, exerted by these changes, I cannot
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 877
precisely say; nor is it necessary here to do more than
direct attention to the subject, and to suggest a careful
comparison between them and Guantanamo in the particu-
lar matter mentioned, and as to suitability for docks*
Since 1887, and in consequence of intervening events,
the United States has come into possession of ports, the
position of which confers the ability to control the pas-
sages named. Thereby, and so far, the great obstacle, or
barrier, constituted by the prolonged line of Cuba, Haiti,
and Puerto Rico, is in American hands, requiring only the
necessary great fleet to assure control. All that was said
about Cuba and its sphere of control is realized to the
United States, except the actual use of the island itself,
of its resources, and especially of its railroads. The con-
trol predicated of the Mona Passage by the occupation of
Samana Bay is more than realized, and further extended,
by the possession of Culebra. So far as position goes, the
influence of Cuba, as before analyzed, is now in the hands
of the United States ; and under these circumstances Key
West may be regarded as the equivalent of Havana for
control of the Straits of Florida. This is the more true
in view of the intervening development of communications
of Key West, actual and prospective, and of the artificial
resources of the island. These will be found stated at
length in an article contributed to the Naval Institute
Proceedings, June, 1908, by Commodore Beehler,^ whose
knowledge of the conditions then was personal and close.
The question of fortification, and of exposure, owing to
the open character of the anchorage, which affords no
cover of intervening land, nor height for batteries, has
not yet been fully met and resolved.
Contributory to the formulation of a general scheme of
fortification in the Caribbean and Gulf, behind which can be
I Commodore Beehler hM lince oontribnted a further discnsfion of the
Ttliie of Key Weit to the MUUary ItutUute Journal,
878 NAVAL STRATEGY
sheltered a local accumulation of resources, — in particular,
several docks, the very most important of the resources of
a fleet in time of war — it becomes essential to consider
and to decide which of the two ports, Guantanamo or Key
West, is the better fitted, bj position, strength, and re-
sources, to serve as the pivot upon which should hinge the
operations of a United States fleet in a war, the motive of
which is the control of the Caribbean in order thereby to
retain control of the Isthmus. Adequate preparation of
this character tends to avert war.
All such questions are complicated by conflicting condi-
tions, some of which induce preference to one port, some
to the other. Primarily, Key West is on United States
ground ; and when the raiboad; is completed it will have
communication with the heart of the country by land, as
well as by sea. I infer from Beehler's article that the dan-
ger of sea raids against the railroad may be obviated by
small vessels acting among the network of shoals which
skirt it, the navigation of which will be more certain by far
to the defender than to the offense. Guantanamo, on the
contrary, like Gibraltar, is separated by long water distance
from the United States ; therefore, again like Gibraltar, it
must depend upon large accumulated resources for power
to hold out, and ultimately upon sea communications, se-
cured at least from time to time by big convoys; for no
resources are inexhaustible, if not renewed.
Yet, on the other hand, no English home station has ever
compared with Gibraltar for control of its special sphere —
the Mediterranean. The historical course pursued here has
told us that without permanent positions in the Mediter-
ranean the British nav}' found it impossible to remain ef-
fectively on the scene. Hence the seizure of Gibraltar;
and, in the same war, of Minorca. At a later date Malta
was taken; because, as Nelson said long before the Suez
Canal was designed, ^^ Malta is important to the control of
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 879
India." In the old great wars, the British Mediterranean
fleet depended for immediate efficiency on resources accu-
mulated locally, in positions secured for that purpose. It
had to hinge its operations on local bases, to which the home
country simply contributed a stream of supplies and re-
sources.
Local operations must have local centers ; and to deter-
mine a question such as that between Guantanamo and
Key West it becomes necessary to determine the scene and
character of operations most conducive to the end in view;
most suitable for defense and for offense. If defensive and
offensive values do not coincide, the preference goes to of-
fensive use. Finally, such a question involves not merely
the respective individual fitness of the two ports considered,
— here Key West and Guantanamo, — but their relations
of service one to the other. Does one defend the other and
its specific field of influence to a greater extent than it re-
ceives such defense in turn ? Does one, while thus defend-
ing, give also better opportunities for offensive action, itself
the best method of defense ?
In a war involving the Gulf of Mexico and the Carib-
bean Sea, the United States will have its defensive side
clearly outlined by the commercial necessity of controlling
the Stmts of Florida as the outlet — and inlet — of the
Mississippi Valley. The offensive side of the war will be
the control of the Isthmus. True, present occupation
there gives now a defensive aspect to such control of the
Isthmus ; but nevertheless, as the supreme center of effort,
much surpassing that at the Straits of Florida, the Isthmus
represents the offensive side. The superior power of Guan-
tanamo for effect at the Isthmus is therefore offensive
power, and in so far the more valuable. Further, as a
mere question of defense for the Gulf and its approaches,
Guantanamo represents, and is the center of, an advanced
line of operations, constituted by Cuba, Haiti, and Puerto
880 NAVAL STRATEGY
Rico; the two wings of which line are Key West and
Culebra. Such a line, adequately held by a fleet, will, as
we have seen in other historical instances, cover all in its
rear, including Key West and the entire Gulf, from moles-
tation except by raids. The possibility of raids can never
be wholly eliminated ; and moreover, although they may
be harassing, they are rarely, if ever, vitally injurious. A
conspicuous instance of a successful raid was the capture
by tlie British admiral Kempenfelt, in December, 1781, of
a dozen French transports proceeding to the West Indies
under convoy. Large as this success was, it did not pre-
vent the sailing of the expedition against Jamaica, in April,
1782, the wants of which the captured vessels were in part
to supply. The failure of the expedition was due, not to
the raid, but to Rodney's victoiy over the French battle
fleet
Offense, against the Isthmus, and defense, of the Gulf,
meet at Guantanamo. Guantanamo, in fact, represents
effectively Cuba, in the discussion through which we have
just passed; though the possession of a single port is of
course less effectual than would be that of the whole island.
Conversely, Jamaica holds over Guantanamo the control
which, as has been pointed out, it holds over the whole
island of Cuba in respect to the Isthmus. Jamaica flanks
all lines of communications. But it flanks equally those
of Key West to the same point, for they must follow the
same routes as those from Cuban ports. Key West in this
has no advantage over Guantanamo; while Guantanamo
has the very great advantage that a battle fleet there has its
grip upon every line from any part of the world to Jamaica.
In the early lectures it was shown that, on the supposition
of equal forces, Santiago paralyzed Jamaica. Under the
changed conditions of to-day we have simply to substitute
Guantanamo for Santiago, as regards position. As regards
strength and resources, especially for provision of docks,
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 881
there appears to me distinct advantage at Ouantanamo for
defensive works. In both places resources must be a mat-
ter of prevision and accumulation.
The effect of the changes of the past twenty years,
wrought by war and by diplomacy, has thus been to confer
upon the United States the opportunity to control the line
which the studies of the earlier period had shown most
effectual for military and naval action in the Caribbean Sea.
<
The series of papers of which this is the last has been
written under a conviction that steam, while it has given
increased certainty and quickness of movement to fleets,
has also imposed upon them such fetters, by the need of re-
newing their fuel, that naval enterprises can no longer have
the daring, far-reaching sweep that they once had, but must
submit to rules and conditions that armies have long borne.
Invasions by land can be only gradual; a certain distance
gained, dependiug upon veiy varying circumstances, must
be made good before a new step is taken, and the whole
line of advance must be bound together in successive links.
It has not always been so at sea. Very long and distant
operations could be undertaken by the derided sailing ship,
because sure that there was no article of absolute necessity
which it could not find wherever it went. The occasional
embarrassments of food and water were met by the accommo-
dating human body submitting to half rations. With coal,
communications have come; and communications mean
that, link by link, even if the links be long, the expedition-
ary force must be bound to the home country as a base.
The Caribbean Sea and the Isthmus of Panama furnish
the student of naval strategy with a very marked illustra-
tion of the necessity of such cohesion and mutual support
between military positions assumed; as well as between
those positions and the army in the field, — that is, the navy.
It affords therefore a subject of the first importance for
882 NAVAL STRATEGY
such a student to master, and that in fuller detail than
is expedient for a series of lectures, the object of which
should be to suggest lines of thought, rather than to at-
tempt exhaustive treatment. For an American naval o£S-
cer, the intimate relation of the Isthmus and its coming
canal to the mutual support of the Atlantic and Pacific
coasts renders the subject doubly interesting. This inter-
est is yet farther increased by the consideration that the
general international importlce to commerce of such a
point as the Canal can scarcely fail to make the conditions
of its tenure and use a source of international difference
and negotiation, which often are war under another form ;
that is, the solution depends upon military power, even
though held in the background. There are questions other
than commercial dependent upon the tenure of the Isthmus,
of which I will not here speak explicitly. To appreciate
them fully there must be constant readinir and reflection
upon the pneral topics of the day.
One thing is sure : in the Caribbean Sea is the strategic
key to the two great oceans, the Atlantic and Pacific, our
own chief maritime frontiers.
UCATAU^ ^
HOMAS
o
«•
C
CHAPTER Xm
DISCUSSION OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
THE War between Japan and Russia is still of
such recent date that the principal events, as
well naval as military, and the discussions to
which these events give rise, may be assumed
to be vividly present to the minds of a naval audience.
There may seem, therefore, a ceitain presumption in under-
taking to deal with them afresh, so soon, and in view of
the many who have ti'eated them. It would appear that
from so many points of view there would have been thrown
upon the subject all the light, and have been revealed all
the aspects, in which it can be considered.
The subject, however, is of such marked value to the
development of a treatment of Naval Strategy that I feel
compelled not merely to use it as illustrative, casually, as
occasion arises, but to undertake also a somewhat formal
narrative and commentary; stating principles involved;
and eliciting, as fully as I can, the lessons which the
history of this contest conveys to us. It of course has to
me personally the particular interest of illustration subse-
quent in date to the course of lectures on Naval Strategy,
the revision of which is the object of my present duty with
the College. By illustration I mean not merely confirma-
tion of the ideas put forth in those earlier lectures, but
also the correction of them, where &ulty or defective.
I have been led, on an occasion not immediately con-
nected with Naval Strategy, to observe that errors and
defects are more obviously illustrative of principles than
successes are. It is from the records of the beaten side that
884 NAVAL STRATEGY
we are most surely able to draw instmctioii. This iis partly
due to the fact that the general or admiral who is worsted
has to justify himself to his people, perhaps also to his Gov-
emment The naval practice of court-martialling a de-
feated captain or admiial has been most productive of the
material which histoiy, and the art of war, both require for
their treatment Even failing a court-martial, defeat cries
aloud for explanation ; whereas success, like charity, covers
a multitude of sins. To this day Marengo is the victory o!
Napoleon, not of Desaix ; and the hazardous stretching of
the French line which caused the first defeat is by most for-
gotten in the ultimate triumph. The man who has failed will
of his own motion bring out all that extenuates failure, or
relieves him from the imputation of it The victor is asked
few questions ; and if conscious of mistakes he need not re-
veal them. More can be found to criticize Kuropatkin and
Rozhestvensky than to recognize either their difficulties or
their merits. Probably few, even in this naval audience,
knew, or have noted, that on the day preceding that on
which two Japanese battleships, the Hatsuse and Yashima,
were sunk by Russian mines, not a Japanese scout was in
sight, to notice the Russian vessel engaged in the work
which i-esulted so disastrously to its foes. On that day,
during that operation, no Japanese vessel was visible to the
lookouts at Port Arthur.
For the reasons advanced, I turn at first, and more par-
ticularly, to the Russian naval action for illustration of
principles, whether shown in right or wrong conduct ; and
here I first name two such principles, or formulation of
maxims, as having been fundamental, and in my judgment
fundamentally erroneous, in the Russian practice. These
are mental conceptions, the first of which has been explic-
itly stated as controlling Russian plans, and influencing
Russian military ideas; while the second may be de-
duced, inferentially, as exercising much effect. The first.
DISCUSSION OF THE RUSSO^APANESE WAR 886
under the tide of ** Fortress Fleet," is distioctly Russian ;
realized^ that is, in Russian theoiy and practice, though not
without representation in the military thought of other
countries. The second is the well known *^ Fleet in
Being; '* a conception distinctly English in statement and
in origin, although, like the first, it finds reflection in naval
circles elsewhere. I shall not at this point define this con-
ception ^ Fleet in Being." I shall attempt to do so later,
by marking its extreme expression ; but to do more will
require more space than is expedient to give here, be-
cause full definition would demand the putting forward
of various shades of significance, quite wide in their di-
vergence, which are attributed to the expression — '* Fleet
in Being '' — by those who range themselves as advocates
of the theory embraced in the phrase.
It is, however, apt here to remark that, in extreme for-
mulation, the two theories, or principles, summed up in
the phrases, ** Fortress Fleet '* and ** Fleet in Being,'* are
the antipodes of each other. They represent naval, or mil-
itary, thought polarized, so to say. The one lays all stress
on the fortress, making the fleet so £ar subsidiary as to have
no reason for existence save to help the fortress. The
other discards the fortress altogether, unless possibly as a
momentary refuge for the vessels of the fleet while coaling,
repairing, or refreshing. The one throws national defense
for the coast lines upon fortifications only ; the other relies
upon the fleet alone for actual defense. In each case,
co(Jperation between the two arms, fleet and coast-works,
is characterized by a supremacy of one or the other, so
marked as to be exclusive. Coordination of the two,
which I conceive to be the , proper solution, can scarcely
be said to exist. The relation is that of subjection, rather
than of cot^rdination.
Before proceeding to discussion of the effect shown upon
Russian action by these two principles, and the consequent
886 I^AVAL STRATEGY
results upon the Russian fortune of war, let me submit to
you one consideration, which has in my eyes the merit of
being applicable to opposing realities in all decisions of life.
In the case of oppositions such as that before us, truth,
a correct decision, is not to be found by seeking at once a
middle course ; what we call a compromise. TruCh — that
is, a right conclusion, or solution — is most surely to be
reached by grasping both the ideas, which underlie the
opposing statements ; grasping them, I mean, in their full
force, even in their extreme force and impression, such as
the two expressions convey. When that impi-ession shall
have been fully produced in your mind, you can then pro-
ceed to give each element — coast fortress and fleet — its
due weight, its due consideration, in the national scheme of
military and naval policy. Undoubtedly, the result will
not be, should not be, the exclusive acceptance of either, as
professed by the two schools of thought The conclusion
reached will undoubtedly be somewhere between them —
not necessarily midway between ; and, because thus be-
tween, some may insist that, by the course which I sug-
gest, you have after all only reached a " compromise." I
prefer to call it an " adjustment," a word the meaning of
which differs from compromise in the syllable " just," —
exact — the French juste. Such justness, precision, in
allotting due weight to opposing factors, can be attained
only by the mental processes which first of all feel the fuU
weight of both, and which consequently, in apportioning
consideration to one, is constantly and adequately sensible
of the importance of the other. He who starts to compro-
mise, without such previous care to be mastered by both
considerations, will invariably, despite himself, begin with
a prepossession ; with a bias towards one which will not be
properly checked by continuous recollection of the other.
Compromise and Adjustment both have to take account
of the same conditions; but they start from different points
DISCUSSION OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 887
of vieT^y and are characterized by essentially different spir-
its. They represent opposing conceptions; the dictionary
does not give compromise among the synonyms of adjust.
The mark of compromise is not concentration, but conces-
sion; and concession in practice means diffusion among
several objects, not coordination of them all upon a central
idea, which is true concentration. The purpose of compro-
mise is net to yields decmveltfy any one of several desirable
things, which yet are not perfectly reconcilable. It intends
to embrace them all, not under a unified conception, but
in a composite concrete result ; such a result as a finished
ship of war, or the active conduct of a campaign. It effects
this result by conceding all round.
To the production of a ship of war, or to the direction of
a campaign, when in operation, there is an antecedent intel-
lectual process, to which is applied the generic term, con-
ception. In a ship this is called specifically the design ; in
a campaign, the plan. This design, or plan, must take
note of all these desirable, yet irreconcilable, qualities ;
but, to do so effectively, it must start with the recognition
that it is not possible to have them all, that one must be
selected as predominant, the others frankly and fuUy sub-
ordinated. This mental attitude Napoleon styled ^' Exclu-
siveness of Purpose ; '' and, in adopting his assertion of it
as essential, I note that it is the opposite of Compromise,
and therefore suggest that, in place of the usual word
*' Compromise," " Adjustment " would be an improvement
in our naval vocabulary. When the extremely difficult at-
titude of mind which Napoleon thus commended, and so
remarkably exemplified, has been attained, when a man is
really determined that one of several qualities in a ship, or
one of several lines of action in a campaign, is to yield
nothing that is not absolutely necessary to yield, while all
the others are to yield everything they can safely be made
to yield, the ensuing design, or plan, may indeed show mis-
888 NAVAL STRATEGY
takes, but it develops under the most &yorable conditions.
Exolusiveness of purpose, and that which we call compro-
mise, are frames of mind, and of character ; they represent
mental and moral conditions which, whether natural or
acquired, are bound to show themselves in action, as surely
as a man^s natural disposition and capacities show them-
selves in his daily life. Fortress Fleet and Fleet in Being
are not merely mental conceptions ; they are moral charac-
teristics which will pervade action.
Exclusi>-eness of purpose, I i^prehend, recognizes &om
first to last that opposites art opposites, and that therefore,
however much a man may wish both, he cannot have both
effectively by conceding something to each, parting with
something of each; for thus he effectually gets neither.
In strategy a x^xy familiar instance is the defense of a
mountain frontier with several passes, or of a river with
s^vend foids.^ The enem v mav attack bv an v one ; it is
desiiable to defend aU. The foix^e for defense is limityid,
fixed^ a constant qxumtity« as is the number of passes or
foTxls ; the constant fonc^ coiresponding herein to the dis-
jxvyiblc tonniu:<» of a s^ijx aiki the nuroher of psi^ses to the
«*Tcr(d qualitic?i lirt^ircd in her. — a# off ens: ve iKwer, deien-
;M\t^ jvwipT. sjyyyi, Oi>al c:"Kir.raj>i?!e. In the defense of a fron-
tier there h^ive been iwv^ svst^ms^ One \^1^. stalled iJie
,v^.iVi5 svjiur.^.. ST^rwki aiv-^nc ii>e line :o be drfenievL 'wtis
\:r.xi '.?.;ni: to joAve any pas? '.inprr:e:ted. c-onseq-jenilr di-
'x idixi :he c>er. :orv>e iiniCini: all T'r.it is crmrrwt^iif^e. All
.■v^v.no: be «dt"*cniiU> de.:ended. <.: >--ZjeLLinr is :•:•n^£Of^i
to wj.r., vM.r. ;7.v:»:ves fl-.Tninif^Lmr ;.^: rr:- ?*::. ^ risi
wo/.jd bf rwi.'.T iidf^coAt^: Kni nr-ne iS efrjuvelv r^r^-
t^:r<vi, n:.T ;Ar. :he ■•Irien^ Tn:ve reai-lv :•: iis suTur.rL.
• • • •
1
DISCUSSION OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 889
wise, in such position, that the whole can move rapidly to
any one pass or ford when threatened. (2) It is evident,
however, that such exdusiveness of purpose, shown in
constituting one predominant centitd force, is not only
compatible with, but demands, the means whereby that
force can reach the point ultimately threatened most quickly,
and with the best chances in its &vor when it does arrive.
This subordinate disposition I have ventured to call adjust-
ment, rather than compromise. It is not compromise,
because it does not for one moment yield anything of the
idea of the central concentrated force. On that it is un-
compromising. All its other arrangements are made with
a clear view to strengthen that force, by increasing its
mobility, and its advantage when it does arrive. For in-
stance, that the several passes should be picketed so as to
give the earliest warning of the enemy's approach, is evi-
dent. It is evident also that if there be in any pass a posi-
tion where the gpx)und affords greatly increased power of
resistance — which power is equivalent to an increase of
numbers to the defenders — it is desirable that the cen-
tral force on arrival should find that position in its own
controL To allot to the pass sufficient force for these pur-
poses is entirely consistent with the one single exclusive
purpose embodied in the constitution of that central force.
The whole process of such an adjustment is dictated by a
single exact thought, and so is essentially a combination.
The word ^* combination " suggests a thought and a warn-
ing, in which perhaps you may see the fad of a writer. In
studying warfare, as in every other subject, do not despise
words, nor be indifferent to the precision and fullness of
their meaning. I dare say this talk about Compromise and
Adjustment may have seemed twaddle or hairsplitting;
but be sure that a man who thinks clearly will very soon
want to speak clearly, and to have accurate words in which
to express his thoughts. So to wish is mere commonplace
890 NAVAL STRATEGY
piactical. If words are capable of two meanings, the
hearer may get the wrong one of the two. Remember
then that combination does not mean merely putting two or
more things together, be those things qualities or actions.
Combination means putting things so together that they no
longer mean two things, — that is, a composite effect, —
but one thing, a single effect. The difference is somewhat
like that between gunpowder and nitroglycerine; a me-
chanical mixture and a chemical combination; and there
results a like disparity of power. A force divided more or
less equally among several passes is not a combination, for
there is no oneness of effort The same force stationed
centrally, with minor divisions in the several passes as de-
scribed, is a combination — one harmonious whole; one,
not in their being only one part, but that the several parts
are so related, and so subordinated to a single head, that
they are practically and essentially one, possessing the
unity of an organism.
It is worthy of your consideration whether the word
compromise does not really convey to your minds an im-
pression that, when you come to design a ship of war, you
must be prepared to concede something on every quality, in
order that each of the others may have its share. Gi-anting,
and I am not prepared to deny, that in effect each several
quality must yield something, if only in order that its own
effectiveness be insured, as in the case of the central de-
fense force just cited, is it of no consequence that you ap-
proach the problem in the spirit of him who divided his
force among several passes, rather than of him who recog-
nizes a central conception to which all else is to minister?
Take the armored cruiser ; a fad, I admit, with myself. She
is armored, and she is a cruiser; and what have you got?
A ship to " lie in the line " ? as our ancestors used to say.
No, and Yes ; that is to say, she may on a pinch, and at a
risk which exceed her powers. A cruiser ? Yes, and No ;
DISCUSSION OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 891
for, in order to give her armor and armament which do not fit
her for the line, you have given tonnage beyond what is
needed for the speed and coal endurance proper to a
cruiser. By giving this tonnage to armor and armament
you have taken it from other uses ; either from increasing
her own speed and endurance, or from providing an addi-
tional cruiser. Tou have in her more cruiser than you
ought to have, and less armored vessel ; or else less cruiser
and more armored ship. I do n^ot call this a combination,
though it is undoubtedly a compromise. Tou have put
two things together, but they remain two, have not be-
come one ; and, considering the tonnage, you have neither
as much armored ship, nor as much cruiser, as you ought
to have. I do not say you have a useless ship. I do say
you have not as useful a ship as, for the tonnage, you ought
to have. Whether this opinion of one man is right or
wrong, however, is a very small matter compared with the
desirability of officers generally considering these subjects
on proper lines of thought, and with proper instruments of
expression; that is, with correct principles and correct
phraseology.
As an illustration of what I am here saying, the two ex-
pressions, ^* Fortress Fleet '' and '^ Fleet in Being,"' them-
selves give proof in tlieir ultimate effect upon Russian
practice and principle. Fortress Fleet was a dominant
conception in Russian military and naval thought. I quote
with some reserve, because from a daily newspaper,^ but as
probably accurate, and certainly characteristic of Russian
theory, the following: ^ Before his departure from Bizerta
for the Suez Canal, Admiral Wirenius, in command of the
Russian squadron, remarked that the Russian plan was to
make Port Arthur and Vladivostok the two most impor-
tant arsenals in the empire, each having a fleet of corre-
1 The Kobe Chnmiele, Pebmaiy 25, 1904 ; an Engliah newspaper pnb-
liBhed in Japan.
■^^>_
892 NAVAL STRATEGY
sponding strength,'' — corresponding, that is, to the fortress
— ^ depending upon it as upon a base." The distribution
would be a division in the face of the probable enemy,
Japan, centrally situated, because the design has reference
primarily to the fortress, not to naval efficiency. The con-
ception is not wholly erroneous ; if it were, the error would
have been detected. It has an element of truth, and therein
lies its greatest danger; the danger of half or quarter
truths. A fleet can contribute to the welfare of coast
fortresses ; especially when the fortress is in a foreign pos-
session of the nation. On the other hand, the Fleet-in-
Being theory has also an element of truth, a very consid-
erable element ; and it has been before the naval public,
explicitly, for so long a time that it is impossible it was not
known in Russia. It was known and was appreciated. It
had a strong following. The Russian Naval (General Staff
clamored for command of the sea ; but in influence upon
the Government, the responsible director and formulator of
national policy, it did not possess due weight. Not having
been adequately grasped, — whether from neglect, or be-
cause the opposite factor of Fortress Fleet was already in
possession of men's minds^ — it was never able to secure
expression in the national plans. There was compromise,
possibly ; both things, Fleet in Being and Fortress Fleet,
were attempted ; but there was not adjustment. The fort-
ress throughout reduced the fleet, as fleet, to insignificance
in the national conceptions. What resulted was that at
Port Arthur the country got neither a fortress fleet, for,
except the guns mounted from it, the fleet contributed
nothing to the defense of the place ; nor yet a Fleet in
Being, for it was never used as such.
It is interesting to observe that this predominant concep-
tion of a fortress fleet reflects national temperament ; that is,
national characteristics, national bias. For, for what does
Fortress Fleet stand ? For the defensive idea. For what
DISCUSSION OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 398
does Fleet in Being stand ? For the offensive. In what
kind of warfare has Russia most conspicuously distinguished
herself? In defensive. She has had her Suvarof, doubt-
less ; but in 1812, and in the Crimea, and now again, in
1904-1905, it is to the defensive that she has inclined. In
virtue of her territorial bulk and vast population, she has,
so to say, let the enemy hammer at her, sure of survival
in virtue of mass. Militarily, Russia as a nation is not
enterprising. She has an apathetic bias towards the defen-
sive. She has not, as a matter of national, or governmental,
decision, so grasped the idea of offense, nor, as a people,
been so gripped by that idea, as to correct the natural pro-
pensity to defense, and to give to defense and offense their
proper adjustment in national and military policy.
In these two well-known expressions, ** Fortress Fleet '' and
*^ Fleet in Being," both current, and comparatively recent, we
find ourselves therefore confronting the two old divisions
of warfare, — defensive and offensive. We may expect
these old friends to exhibit their well-known qualities and
limitations in action ; but, having recognized them under
their new garb, we will also consider them under it, speak-
ing not directly of offensive and defensive, but of Fortress
Fleet and Fleet in Being, and endeavoring, first, to trace
their influence in the Russian conduct.
The exceedingly tentative method by which the Russians
accumulated in the Far East the naval force which they had
there at the opening of the war, indicates of itself an in-
adequate conception, and an inadequate purpose, as to
using the fleet. We do not know, probably the world
never will know, the processes of reasoning which deter-
mined their actions. As in other cases, motive must be
here inferred from acts ; and the Russian acts, as well in
assembling the fleet as in stationing it, and in using it, all
go to indicate absence of purpose to use it offensively, and
presence of purpose to devote it to the support of a fortress*
894 NAVAL STRATEGY
For, if it was meant to be employed offensively, if that
motive was clearly formulated and distinctly dominant, it
would have dictated the assembling of a force decidedly
superior to that of the Japanese ; which Russia was able to
do, for she had the ships. Of course, the haphazard method,
which caught two ships on the way out, might have been
adopted through mere carelessness ; but it would have been
much less likely to occur had the purpose been to act offen-
sively. If the primary purpose had been to fight the
enemy's fleet, the need of superior force could not have
been overlooked ; and, when taken in connection with the
subsequent naval conduct throughout, the absence of offen-
sive intention with the fleet can jusUy be inferred.
A French naval officer. Lieutenant OUivier, in an essay
crowned by the Navy League of France, which I have found
very instructive, remarks justly, " If the necessity has been
foreseen of concentrating the permanent forces in case of
war, such concentration should be effected while peace still
lasts." This corresponds to the old strategic maxim that
concentration, that is, the stationing the several bodies in
such positions as to make mutual support certain, should
take place beyond the enemy's power to strike any one of
them separately. In other words, what we call the dis-
tribution of a navy, in peace, should conform to the most
probable needs, if war should arise. This repeats Jomini's
comment on the elaborate scheme of two army corps mov-
ing by separate routes, to unite near the enemy : " What
pains to effect a junction at last which might perfectly well
have been effected at first, and continued throughout the
movement." Instead of this, the Russians having two
fortresses, under the influence of their conception of a
Fortress Fleet, divided their battle fleet into two bodies ;
the smaller of which was what Jomini calls a big detach-
ment, which he qualifies as being at best — that is, when it
must be made — an unavoidable evil. Hence arose the sub-
DISCUSSION OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 895
sequent lequirement to unite the two, resulting in the twin
disasters of August 10 and 14 ; in face of which there are
those who would divide the United States fleet between
the Atlantic and Pacific. This helps to reinforce the con-
clusion, from the universal experience of mankind, that
principles are of decisive consequence upon conduct ; the
results appearing in places least expected, and where it
requires some attention to trace them back to their origin
in faulty principles. Incorrect principles, or disregard of
correct principles, in this war, caused the stronger nation
to be defeated by the weaker. The inefficient conduct of
the war proceeded from defective grasp of principles.
Since these words were written, I have come across what
seems conclusive evidence that the necessity for a fleet in
these waters was foreseen and brought to the attention of
the Russian Admiralty as early as 1896, nearly two years
before the Russian occupation of Port Arthur (on March 27,
1898), In an article in the Fortnightly Review for May,
1910, page 819, " Why Russia went to war with Japan,*'
vouched as the account of a person behind the scenes in
Russia, occurs the following:
<^In 1896, the Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovitch
presented a long memorandum setting forth the urgent
need of creatmg a powerful navy in the waters of the
Pacific, on the grouna that, unless we held command of the
sea, we could not hope to continue in lasting possession of
the Siberian Railway to [as far as] the ocean. In this
document, it was pointed out that in 1906 Japan's naval
preparations, according to the program drawn up, would
be completed ; that it was manifest she was making ready
to wage war against Russia, and that by 1903 we ou^ht to
be in a condition to meet every emergency. In the highest
naval spheres this expo9S &iled to evoke a sympathetic
response."
896 NAVAL STRATEGY
political, or latlier international, literature. This incidental
remark, in an article essentially political, not militaiy, shows
a government completely blind to the necessity of creating,
and of transferring betimes from one national coast to
another, a naval force that could have been so enlarged
and transferred. It not only throws light on history, and
on Russian methods, but is a warning to all military men
that to be efficient as counsellors they must be familiar
with international relations as well as with militaiy
principles.
The very faulty conception, expressed in the phrase
^ Fortress Fleet," not only caused the assembling of a fleet
characteristically defensive in numbers, but led to the sta-
tioning of that fleet in a faulty position, dictated by the
idea of supporting thus a cherished fortress. I find myself
confronted here with a past erroneous conclusion of my
own, which, however, I could scarcely have reached had
I been in the Russian counsels ; for I would not then have
believed, as I did, that Vladivostok was hopelessly closed
by ice during winter, thus paralyzing movement. This is
not the case ; the Russian ice-breakers were competent to
assure free exit. Not knowing this, and assuming that the
fleet should be used offensively, as I still do, it appeared to
me that Port Arthur was correctly chosen ; for there it
certainly could get out, and if it also incidentally could
aid in the defense, without injury to its offensive func-
tions, that was so much gain. Actually, however, Vladi-
vostok was available; and in its situation, in its two
exits, as well as in general navigational facilities, it pos-
sessed distinct advantages for a fleet intended for its proper
office of offense.
Why then was the fleet stationed in Port Arthur?
Because, expecting the Japanese attack to fall upon Port
Arthur, the purpose of the Russian authorities was not to
use the fleet offensively against the enemy's navy, but
DISCUSSION OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 897
defensively as a fortress fleet; defending the fortress by
defensive action, awaiting attack, not making it That is,
the function of the fortress was conceived as defensive
chiefly, and not as offensive. Later, I hope to show that
the purpose, the raUon cTUre, of a coast fortress is in itself
offensive ; because it exists chiefly for the purpose of shel-
tering a fleet, and keeping it fit to act offensively. For
the present, waiving the point, it will be sufficient to note
that the conception of the fleet by the Russians, that it
should act only in defense, led necessarily to imperfect
action even in that respect. The Port Arthur division
virtually never acted offensively, even locally. An observer
on the spot says : *^In the disposition of their destroyers, the
authorities did not seem disposed to give them a free hand,
or to allow them to take any chances." And again, ** The
torpedo boats were never sent out with the aim of attack-
ing Japanese ships, or transports. If out, and attacked,
they fought, but they did not go out for the purpose of
attacking, although they would to cover an aimy flank.'*
These two actions define the rdle indicated by the expres-
sion, ** Fortress Fleet'' The Japanese expressed surprise
that no attempt by scouting was made to ascertain their
naval base, which was also the landing place of their army ;
and, although the sinking of the two battleships on May 15
was seen from Port Arthur, no effort was made to improve
such a moment of success, and of demoralization to the
enemy, although there were twenty-one destroyers at Port
Arthur ; sixteen of which were under steam and outside.
So, at the very last moment, the fleet held on to its defen-
sive rOle ; going out only when already damaged by ene-
my's shells, and then not to fight but to fly.
It is a curious commentary upon this course of action,
that, as far as any accounts that have come under my eye
show, the fleet contributed nothing to the defense of the
fortress beyond landing guns, and, as the final death strug-
898 NAVAL STRATEGY
gle approached, using their batteries in support of those of
the fortress ; but the most extreme theorist would scarcely
advocate such an end as the object of maintaining a fleet.
The same guns would be better emplaced on shore. As
far as defense went, the Russian Port Arthur fleet might
as well have been at Cronstadt throughout. Indeed, better ;
for then it would have accompanied Rozhestvensky in con-
centrated numbers, and the whole Russian navy there as-
sembled, in force far superior, would have been a threat
to the Japanese command of the sea much more effective,
as a defense to Port Arthur, than was the presence of part
of that fleet in the port itself.
The Russian fleet in the Far East, assembled as to the
main body in Port Arthur, by its mere presence under the
conditions announced that it was there to serve the fortress,
to which it was subsidiary. Concentrated at Vladivostok,
to one side of the theater of war, and flanking the enemy's
line of communications to that which must be the chief
scene of operations, it would have been a clear evident dec-
laration that the fortress was subsidiary to the ships ; that
its chief value in the national military scheme was to shelter,
and to afford repairs, in short, to maintain in eflBciency, a
body which meant to go out to fight, and with a definite
object. The hapless Rozhestvensky gave voice to this fact
in an expression which I have found attributed to him be-
fore the fatal battle at Tsushima : that, if twenty only of
the numbers under his command reached Vladivostok, the
Japanese communications would be seriously endangered.
This is clear " Fleet in Being " theory, and quite undi-
luted ; for it expresses the extreme view that the presence
of a strong force, even though inferior, near the scene of
operations, will produce a momentous effect upon the
enemy's action. The extreme school has gone so far as
to argue that it will stop an expedition ; or should do so,
if the enemy be wise. I have for years contended against
DISCUSSION OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 899
this view as unsound ; as shown to be so historically. Such
a ^ fleet in being/' inferior, should not be accepted by an
enemy as a sufficient deterrent under ordinary circum-
stances. It has not been in the past, and the Japanese
did not so accept it The Russian *^ fleet in being," in
Port Arthur, did not stop their transportation; although
they recognized danger from it, and consistently took every
step in their power to neutralize it. Their operations
throughout were directed consistently to this end. The
first partially successful torpedo attack; the attempts to
block the harbor by sinking vessels ; the distant bombard-
ments ; the mines laid outside ; and the early institution
and persistence in the siege operations, — all had but one
end, the destruction of the fleet, in being, within; but,
for all that, that fleet did not arrest the transport of
the Japanese army.
These two simultaneous operations, the transport of
troops despite the fleet in being, and the persevering
effort at the same time to destroy it — or neutralize it
— illustrate what I have called adjustment between op-
posite considerations. The danger from the fleet in being
is recognized, but so also is the danger in delaying the in-
itiation of the land campaign. The Fleet in Being School
would condemn the transportation, so long as the Port
Arthur fleet existed. It actually did so condemn it The
London Times^ which is, or then was, under the influence
of this school, published six weeks before the war began a
summary of the situation, by naval and military correspon-
dents, in which appears this statement: *^With a hostile
fleet behind the guns at Port Arthur, the Japanese could
hardly venture to send troops into the Yellow Sea.'' And
again, four weeks later : ^^ It is obvious that, until the Rus-
sian ships are sunk, captured, or shut up in their ports with
their wings effectually clipped, there can be no security
for the sea communications of an expeditionaiy force."
400 NAVAL STRATEGY
These are just as clear illustrations of the exaggeration
inherent in the Fleet in Being theory, which assumes the
deterrent influence of an offensive threatened by inferior
force, as the conduct of the Russian naval operations was of
the inefficiency latent in their theory of Fortress Fleet.
If security meant the security of peace, these " Fleet-in-
Being " statements could be accepted ; but militaiy security
is an entirely different thing ; and we know that, coinci-
dently with the first toipedo attack, before its result could
be known, an expeditionaiy Japanese force was sent into
the Yellow Sea to Chemulpo, and that it rapidly received
reinforcements to the estimated number of fifty or sixty
thousand. The enterprise in Manchuria, the landing of
troops west of the mouth of the Yalu, was delayed for some
time — two months, more or less. What the reason of
that delay, and what determined the moment of beginning,
I do not know ; but we do know, not only that it was made
in face of four Bussian battleships within Port Arthur, but
that it continued in face of the increase of their number
to six by the repair of those damaged in the first torpedo
attack. As early as May 31, it was known in Tokyo that
the damaged ships were nearly ready for the sortie, which
they actually made on June 23.
It is doubtless open to say that, though the Japanese
did thus venture, they ought not to have done so. Note
therefore that the Japanese were perfectly alive to the
risks run. From the first they were exceedingly care-
ful of their battleships, knowing that on them depended
the communications of their army. The fact was noted
early in the war by observers on the spot. This shows
that they recognized the full menace of all the conditions
of the Russian fleet in Port Arthur, also of the one in the
Baltic, and of the danger to their communications. Never-
theless, though realizing these various dangers from the
hostile " fleets in being," they ventured.
DISCUSSION OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 401
About the middle of March, that is, six weeks after the
war began, a report, partly believed by the Japanese au-
thorities, came in that the Port Arthur ships had escaped
in a snow storm, on March 11. It is reported that all
transportation of troops stopped for some ten days. It
may be remembered timt in our war with Spain, a very
similar report, from two different and competent witnesses,
arrested the movement of Shafter's army from Key West
until it could be verified. In the case of the Japanese, as
in our own, the incident illustrates the possible dangers
from a ^^ Fleet in Being/' In neither report was there an
evident impossibility. Had either proved true the momen-
tary danger to communications is evident; but the danger
is one the chance of which has to be taken. As Napoleon
said. War cannot be made without running risks. The
condition that an enemy's fleet watched in port may get
out, and may do damage, is entirely different from the fact
that it has gotten out The possibility is not a sufficient
reason for stopping transportation ; the actual fact is suffi-
cient for taking particular precautions, adjusting disposi-
tions to the new conditions, as was done by ourselves and
by the Japanese in the circumstances. The case is wholly
different if the enemy has a fleet equal or superior ; for
then he is entirely master of his movement, does not de-
pend upon evasion for keeping the sea, and communications
in such case are in danger, not merely of temporary dis-
arrangement but of permanent destruction. No special
warning is needed to know this ; the note of the ^' Fleet in.
Being " School is insistence on the paralyzing effect of an
ii\ferior fleet.
As &r as my knowledge of naval history goes experience
does not indorse the opinion, which certainly traverses the
practice of land warfare. There it frequently happens that
a general contents himself with simply watching with a
competent detachment a fortress which menaces his com-
402 NAVAL STRATEGY
munications ; and I believe the Japanese were fully justi-
fied in their course, not by their eventual success, but by
the actual conditions they had before them. They adjusted
their action to the conditions ; not by ignoring the fleet iq
being, nor yet by abandoning their invasion, but by so
watching the fleet as to be reasonably secure — in a military
sense — that it could not do any fatal injury. Communica-
tions cannot be made inviolable ; nor need they be, to be
secure. " Good partisan troops," says Jomini, " will always
trouble communications, even the most favorably situated ; ''
and the operations of an inferior fleet in being, depending
for effectiveness upon its sudden furtive action, are merely
those of a partisan body, raiding.
The Japanese had one very unpleasant experience of this
kind. The Russian Vladivostok squadron, which you will
remember consisted of only three armored cruisers, on one
of its raids in the Sea of Japan, captured two or three trans-
ports, on board one of which was a train of siege artillery.
The loss of this is believed to have prolonged the siege of
Port Arthur ; thus protracting for the Japanese that anxious
period in which the Baltic fleet might have arrived, and
did not. In the same way, the siege of Acre by Napoleon
in 1799 was prolonged, and subsequently failed, by exactly
the same occurrence, the capture of the whole siege train
by a British cruiser ; the siege therefore having to be con-
ducted with field pieces. It can hardly be maintained,
however, that either of these untoward incidents would
warrant the stoppage of all transportation until an enemy's
inferior fleet in being had been destroyed. If so, Bonaparte
should have waited in Egypt till he knew his siege train
had arrived before Acre, and Japan have limited her trans-
portation to that necessary for the reduction of Port Arthur,
that being the only means by which the enemy's fleet was,
or could be, reached.
I have pointed out, discursively and at large, the effect
DISCUSSION OF THE RUSSO^APANESE WAR 408
which the false principle summed ap in the phrase ^^ Fortress
Fleet" produced upon the Russian Government: (1) In
the manner of assembling its fleet in the Far East, and
(2) by its choice of the point, or rather points, of assembly,
— of the positions in which the fleet was stationed. These
two acts are part of the evidence, from which, in de&ult
of more explicit testimony, outsiders have to infer the
motive, the principle, by which the Grovemment, through
its responsible representatives, was actuated. To infer
thus intentions from acts, principles from conduct, is per-
fectly legitimate ; especially where there is strong coiTob-
orative evidence in the statement that the general principle
does, or did, prevail in Russia, although we have not the
same positive knowledge as to its influence in the partic-
ular case under consideration.
The most convincing proof, however, of the general pur-
pose of the Russian authorities, and of the habit of naval
thought which underlay that puipose, is to be found in
neither of the two circumstances just noted. The method
of assembling the fleet, its numbers when assembled, and
the position, station, in which it was assembled, are all
strong indications of erroneous military principles. If we
had no other, they might suffice for a verdict ; but the third
consideration, of the manner in which the fleet at Port
Arthur was used, is by itself so conclusive of faulty under-
lying conceptions, that the others, however strong in them-
selves, become merely cumulative.
I pass over, of course, the exposure to torpedo surprise
which resulted in the immediate loss of two battleships for
a prolonged period at the opening of the war. However
censurable as carelessness, this proves nothing as to inten-
tions. After this mishap, inasmuch as it was immediately
certain to the Russians that the injured vessels could be so
far repaired as to take their places again in the line, it was
proper, and even imperative, not to seek action until they
404 NAVAL STRATEGY
were again ready. Also, the propitious time for battle
must depend always upon various considerations ; and it is
not necessary to our present inquiry to consider nicely just
when that time was. It might veiy well be a few weeks
sooner or later ; but we have to observe that thei'e does
not seem to have been any clearly defined puipose that any
such time — that is, time for fighting — should be found.
In the event, the Russian fleet left Port Arthur, as far as
appears, merely because it was clear that the anchorage
would soon become untenable. That is, so long as possi-
ble, the fleet was kept tied to the fortress, a vague possible
shadow of help to it, a Fortress Fleet, apparently without a
thought of offensive action against the Japanese ^^ Fleet in
Being" at hand, outside, upon the efficiency of which de-
pended the issue of the war.
Nor is this all. When it became evident that the fleet
could not remain in Port Arthur until Rozhestvensky
arrived, that to stay would entail the destruction which
ultimately did befall, the decision reached was simply, and
apparenUy somewhat vaguely, to transfer the fleet to
another fortress. Now, note, I do not condemn the deci-
sion, evidently reached, to go to Vladivostok ; for that was
essentially to make a junction with the strong detachment
in that port, of three fine armored cruisers, before accepting
battle. If that could be done, it was the admiral's duty not
to fight till he had thus united his whole force ; and it was
right to embrace even the barest chance of getting to
Vladivostok with the main body uninjured, and after the
junction to deliver battle. That a junction was intended
is evident, from the fact that the Vladivostok vessels were
ordered to move to the Straits of Korea. Whether this
subordinate movement was judicious or not, considering
that the Japanese division of four armored cruisers was
known to be in the straits, is matter of fair difference of
opinion. My own is, that, seeing the great improbability
DISCCTSSION OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 406
of either division escaping action, under the circumstances,
it would have been better to keep the Yladivostok ships in
their own port, so that, if the Port Arthur division got
through, it would find them uninjured. The off chance,
that both divisions might escape action, and might join in
the open sea, though very desirable if effected, was to my
mind too remote, too improbable, to justify the attempt.
As it was, we after the event know there was very little
chance, and that actually both divisions had to fight,
separately, and very far apart
The purpose to take the Port Arthur division to Vladi-
vostok, therefore, was in my opinion justifiable; but the
conduct of the attempt shows conclusively that there un-
derlay it no adjustment of purpose to the actual conditions,
summarized as these were in the existence and presence of
the somewhat superior Japanese fleet, the central decisive
factor in the war. If I were looking for an apt illustration
of the distinction between compromise, and that which I
have called adjustment, I would point to this Russian
movement The admiral had before him two things, two
conditions, both desirable, both possible, opposed one to the
other at the moment, but each conducive to the end of war ;
that is, conducive to success, ultimate success. (1) There
was getting to Vladivostok, thus concentrating his com-
mand, and by means of the facilities of the port putting it
into the best possible conditions for battle. (2) Opposed
to this, as interfering with it, — as the demand for speed in
ships interferes with the requirement for armament, — and
yet necessarily to be embraced in any plan of procedure,
was the enemy's fleet, known by experience to be near by,
and believed to be superior. To damage it, if encountered,
to reduce it to the lowest possible efficiency, so as to obtain
the best possible chance for Russia's reserve navy, was evi-
dently incumbent
The plan of the sortie should have embraced clearly both
406 NAVAL STRATEGY
contingencies, the desired escape and the possible battle,
distinguishing clearly between them, recognizing their dif-
fering requirements, and assigning to each the mode of
action that each demanded, under such probable contingen-
cies as could be foreseen. If the event offered strong
probability of escape, practically uninjured, then there
should be no fighting that could be avoided. Should battle
become unavoidable, as, for instance, by one ship being so
injured as to be unable to keep up, then all thought of es-
cape should be abandoned, and the whole fleet, as one body,
throw itself upon the enemy, determined that, if defeat en-
sued, there should be no fight left in the victor.
Nelson, though less dramatic in expression, was as fruit-
ful in phrases as Napoleon, and he has supplied two that
exactly fitted the Russian opportunity. The first, reiterated
by him on more than one occasion of expected meeting with
a superior fleet, was : ^^ If we get close alongside, by the
time they have beaten our fleet soundly, they will do us no
harm this year." Translated into Russian, this means,
^ By the time the Japanese have beaten the Port Arthur
fleet, they will be in no condition for six months to injure
Rozhestvensky." The second of Nelson's sayings, more
familiar, was, " In case signals cannot be understood, no
captain can do very wrong if he places his ship alongside
that of an enemy." You will observe that both the oppo-
site lines of action suggested for the Russians have the one
motive — the destruction of the Japanese fleet. There is
in neither a compromise, between escape and fighting;
partial escape and partial action ; concession to each de-
sired object. The one motive is the destruction of the
enemy; but there is adjustment, due to the existence of
the strong Vladivostok detachment. If it can be joined
before fighting, good ; if not, the fighting must be charac-
terized by the same desperateness, as if the junction had
been effected. It would be no adjustment, but a bare com-
DISCUSSION OF THE RUSSO^APANESE WAR 407
promise, so to fight as to escape with part; because the
part thus saved is unequal to contend with the enemy, and
the way for the Baltic fleet has not been cleared.
The instructions of the Russian admiral should have set
forth these considerations so clearly, and prescribed action
so positively, as to have made impossible what actually oc-
curred, through the sole, though serious, accident of the coin-
cident disabling of the flagship and the death of the com-
mander-in-chief. If the second in command and the
captains had received, as they should, clear instructions,
that, foiling escape without battle, the fate of the war — to
quote Togo before Tsushima — depended upon this action,
it is to me inconceivable that they could have slunk back to
their fortress as they did. No one imagines cowardice ; but
also no man's imagination could have been equal to conceiv-
ing beforehand such utterly vicious misconception of what
the duty of the navy was. I doubt, myself, if the result
would have been materially different, had the admiral lived
and the flagship not been disabled. The spirit of a clear-
headed resolute commander-in-chief does not expire at the
instant that his body dies. If the Russian fleet, to a ship,
had gone down in such an attempt, Manchuria might have
been lost; but it would have been well lost with such a
priceless gain in morale to the Russian navy, and, what was
more immediately to the point, the Japanese fleet could
not but have suffered to the extent of at least temporary
disability.
I shall pass over the action of August 14 between Kami-
mura's division of four armored cruisers, and the Russian
three from Vladivostok. The r6le of these three in the
general strategic movement, the one aim of which should
have been to destroy the Japanese navy, was a minor
detail, to be adjusted to the action of the main body at Port
Arthur. I have already indicated my own preference
for keeping them at Vladivostok, making the junction
408 NAVAL STRATEGY
there. Junction was the one first thing. To effect it, the
Port Arthur fleet had to take its risk ; but there was no
sufficient reason compelling a similar hazard for the smaller
body. It was unequal to Kamimura, and had few chances of
passing him unseen ; fewer still of joining its own fleet
Atmospheric conditions had to be assumed equally favorable
to both parties ; therefore the luck that might have given
the go-by to the enemy was equally likely to cause the friend
to be missed. The chance against the junction therefore, is
the chance of meeting Kamimura, plus the chance of missing
the friend. Further, assuming the Russians and Japanese
at Port Arthur to be equal, caUing each therefore six, the
approximate numbers, it is a simple calculation to state
that if the Vladivostok division met Eamimura, alone, as it
didf the odds would be as 4 to 8 against the Russians;
whereas, had a junction in Vladivostok been effected the
numerical odds thenceforth between the two combined
bodies would be 10 to 9, — a much nearer approach to
equality ; and the larger the main bodies the less the ine-
quality after the detachments have joined. As a matter of
probable calculation, I think all goes to show that Vladivos-
tok was the point for uniting ; and this coincides with the
time-honored maxim that it is not advisable for two sepa-
rated bodies to seek their point of concentration inside the
enemy's lines.
CHAPTER XIV
DISCUSSION OF THE BUSSO-.JAPANESE WAR
(Concluded)
THE conduct and actions of Admiral Rozhest-
vensky, when leading to its final experiences
the Russian forlorn hope under his command,
should be regarded from the same point of view,
of singleness of aim, that has been applied to the trans-
actions of the Port Arthur fleet. This requirement,
singleness of conception and aim, is the standard by which
to measui^ the various details of his arrangements for the
last stage of the voyage ; that from the Saddles, off Shang-
hai, to Vladivostok, in the course of which the possibility
became imminent of meeting the enemy on ground of his
own choosing.
The fleet under Rozhestvensky may be assumed to have
entered the strategic area of the war when the vessels
anchored off the Saddle Islands, near the mouth of the
Yang-tse-Kiang.^ It is true that possible operations were
open to the Japanese before that ; and they did take certain
precautionary measures, such as sending a squadron of
observation as far even as Singapore,- and laying mines
around the Pescadores Islands, in the Formosa Channel.
But the decision of Togo to concentrate his armored ships
at the Straits of Korea, and the absence of any attempt
by him to harass the Russians before that point was reached,
make it proper to confine consideration to Rozhestvensky's
course after anchoring at those islands, which are within
easy steaming distance of Vladivostok. He was there, so
^ See map facing page 426.
410 NAVAL STRATEGY
to say, on one edge of the theater of active war, his des-
tined port on the other.
I think tiiat, as time passes, history will take a more
indulgent view of the procedure of this unfortunate admiral ;
not so much hy minimizing the undoubted errors of his last
four days of command, as in recognizing the arduous task
he had accomplished up to that time, and also, very
especially, the prepossession of his intellect, fostered by the
Russian ideals, and intensified by the long strain of exi-
gency constituted by a voyage such as his from the Baltic.
During this he had had no resources on which to depend^ ex-
cept the benevolent neutrality of other nations, which could
be extended only by straining international obligations. To
this burden of care is to be added the knowledge of the
unsatisfactory condition of his own squadron, and that
there was in the East no reinforcement, except the two
surviving armored cruisers at Vladivostok.
Justice demands the combined recollection of these fac-
tors, extenuating the series of grave faults he proceeded
now to commit — if my estimate of his conduct is coiTect;
but, granting the faults, it is yet more essential, in weigh-
ing them, to bear in mind the traditions of his service as
well as the difBcult circumstances confronting him.
To these inferential considerations must also be added
certain explicit statements by Captain Semenofif, of the
Russian navy, in his book, " Rasplata."
First: As regards the transports following the fleet and
being present at the moment of encountering the enemy,
an incident sure to entail tactical embarrassment, Semenoff
says:
"A not inconsiderable difficulty was caused by the
anxious warnings received [before leaving Kamranh Bay,
in French Indo-China] from the Naval General Staff ; we
were not to be a burden upon the poorly equipped and
armed port of Vladivostok, and not to count on supplies by
DISCUSSION OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 411
the Siberian Railway. On the one side the most elementary
of tactical maxims bade us go into battle as little hampered as
Sossible, and, as a matter of course, not to take with us any
eet auxiliaries which would interfere with our free move-
ments. On the other hand, we were bound to take into
account these amiable communications.
** A compromise had to be arrived at The admiral de*
cided as follows : The warships were to take on board as
much in the way of stores of all kinds as the space provided
for their reception on board would hold. The auxiliary
steamers, the three largest and best, were to embark the
largest possible amounts of articles most needed. These
three and the Kamchatka were to follow the fleet and shara
its fate in the attempt to reach Vladivostok."
Second : With reference to the amount of coal taken on
board the ships of war, Semenoff makes the following
mention :
^^May 28. At 5.80 A.m. stopped engines and started
coaling. Ships were informed that this will probably be
the last time of coaling. We were therefore to do our
best to have still the normal stowage in our bunkers on
the morning of May 26."
To these words he appends a foot note :
^^How impudently those lied who pretended that the
ships had been overloaded with coal during the battle."
The effect of the statements in these quotations is to
transfer a certain part of the responsibility in Rozhest-
vensky's decision to carry to Vladivostok the greatest
possible quantity of stores; of which coal is one item.
The orders from St. Petersburg, however, did not compel
him to have the transports in company with the fleet. The
Government prescribed an object, the method of accom-
plishing which was for the admiral to determine ; and as
a matter of &ct the particular number of transports to
proceed, which he did settle, was as much an exercise of
his own discretion, as was their relation of position to his
412 NAVAL STRATEGY
fleet, either on the voyage towards Yladivostok or at the
moment of meeting the enemy.
As regards the loading the warships with coal, SemenofTs
statement that they were not overloaded was so contrary
to all other accounts that I addressed a question to the
OfiBce of Naval Intelligence. In reply, the OfSce sent
me two quotations from the defense of Admiral Nebogatoff,
during his court-martial. It is not necessary to give these
in full. They confirm the information already published.
One sentence runs, ^^ According to our estimate we had
at the beginning of the battle coal enough for about three
thousand miles, while the distance to Vladivostok through
Tsushima Straits was less than nine hundred miles.*'
There seems reason to believe that Semenoff is not always
strictly exact in his statements. He has since died; but
concern is with his trustworthiness as an accurate witness,
not with his personal truthfulness.
The effect of such admonitions upon a general officer,
situated as Rozhestvensky was, is undoubtedly to qualify
his responsibility, and thus in a degree to obscure his per-
sonality; so that in some measure the criticisms to be
addressed to the ensuing operations are rather to Russia
than to the Russian admiral. It seems fit to draw attention
in passing to the close inter-connection which usually exists
between the different parts of any scheme of national de-
fense, or of any plan of operations. While Rozhestvensky
was painfully but successfully leading an armored fleet
with transports round the Cape of Good Hope, — three
years before our own battle fleet passed the Straits of Magel-
lan, — the inadequate development of the Siberian Railway
and the mismanagement of the Port Arthur division were
preparing the painful dilemma he met at the Saddles.
Nothing is more essential for an officer in command any-
where, be it of a single ship or of the smallest detachment
of seamen, than to remember that his own inattention to
DISCUSSION OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 418
the general situation, or his inefficient action, may fatally
embarrass larger interests.
On one occasion duiing the Spanish War the Navy De-
partment was seriously harassed by inability to locate a
cruiser which was urgently needed, but the commander of
which had indulged himself in independent single action
without precaution against the contingency of being required
for the general operations.
The same considerations hold as to a surrender. No
extreme, short of absolute incapacity to resist, justifies
surrender, unless it is evident that no other interest is
compromised ; and that practically is never the case. Roz-
hestvensl^ was defeated on August 10, before Port Arthur,
by tiie inefficient action of the Port Arthur division, as
really, though not as finally, as off Tsushima nine months
later.
Recurring now to Rozhestvensky's own proceedings:
From the beginning of the war until his arrival at the Sad-
dles the determining factor had not changed, although it
had been somewhat modified in application. Eveiything
depended upon the command of the sea ; and command of
the sea could be obtained only by the destruction of the
enemy's fleet That destruction, again, could be effected
only by battie ; by the cannon ; by bringing the fleets into
collision under the circumstances of greatest advantage for
the party seeking the encounter. For the Russian fleet
under Rozhestvensky this advantage meant necessarily, if
possible, access to a navy yard first, in order that the tacti-
cal qualities of each ship, its speed and maneuvering power,
with all the factors upon which these depend, machinery,
boilers, and clean hulls, should be realized to the utmost.
This the Japanese had had time to do ; the culpable mis-
management of the Russian Port Arthur division having
caused them no disabling losses. There could be no ques-
tion therefore that Rozhestvensky's first object should be
414 NAVAL STRATEGY
to reach Yladivostok without fighting, in order that after-
ward he might fight with the most chances in his favor.
Besides, he would there join the two remaining armored
cruisers ; no despicable reinforcement to his rather scratch
lot of vessels.
In characteristic features therefore Rozhestvensky's prob-
lem was precisely the same as that of the Port Arthur
division on August 10, nine months earlier; and he had
before him its experience, a factor additional for judging
what his course should be. To escape, if he could, for the
moment; to fight at once, if he must ; but in no case, by
double-mindedness, to fall between these two stools, as the
Port Arthur squadron had by the hesitating frame of mind
which breeds compromise. Both contingencies — escape and
battle — were so far possible that both must be provided for
in the plan ; but as unity of conception had required of the
Port Arthur division the purpose, if it must fight, to fight
with the desperate resolve that the enemy should suffer to
the utmost, in order so to clear the field for the reserve
coming under Rozhestvensky ; so the same unity of concep-
tion demanded of that admiral that, if he could not escape,
if he must fight before getting the benefit of Vladivostok,
his ships at the moment of engagement should be in the
very best condition, tactically, that he could insure, and the
enemy deprived at least of the advantage of knowing be-
forehand his dispositions. There were no reserves now;
the whole fortune of Russia was in his hands.
Where the conditions of war are such that a solution
cannot be reached without battle, this imposes as the stra-
tegic aim to force battle at the time, and under the conditions,
most favorable, tactically, to yourself. In face of this per-
fectly clear truth, having only a bare thousand miles to go,
the admiral pi*oceeded to load his ships down with coal;
carried, it is said, even in the admiral's cabin. Needless to
say that this procedure militated against escape, as actually
DISCUSSION OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 415
as it did against speed and maneuvering power; that is,
against tactical efficiency. Moreover, it imposed upon the
vessels additional disadvantage for the day of battle ; for it
further submerged the armor belts, already too low in the
water through faulty design, and exposed the superstruc-
tures to increased danger of fire by crowding them with
combustibles. One French writer asserts that the loss of
the battle was due to the fires started in these coal traps by
the Japanese intermediate batteries. I doubt whether,
among so many causes, the result can be ascribed to one
alone ; but certainly the tendency would be as stated.
It should ever be the aim of a commander-in-chief to
reach his result without wastefulness, with a minimiun ex-
penditure of men and material ; although, as in all cases of
opposing considerations, there must be no attempt to strike
a balance, a compromise, in the vain hope to satisfy both
considerations — the result and the economy. If the object
is not worth the expenditure, spend nothing. If it is worth
while, and yet can be equally attained by a less expenditure,
economize; but do not economize any amount, however
great and desirable, necessary to put the attainment of the
object beyond all possibility of failure, or even of complet-
est success. Rozhestvensky's management of the prepara-
tion for meeting the enemy appears to me as a whole so
blundering, that I am forced to the conclusion he had never
clearly thought out his strategic problem and settled down
in consequence to a single-minded decision. The excessive
provision of coal is an exemplification of economizing mate-
rial at the expense of lessening the chances to attain the
first and all essential object, victory. He had become so
obsessed with the question of supplies, and of reaching
Vladivostok, that neither escape nor battle clearly dominated
in his mind. Rather, the two contended throughout for
mastery, making him essentially a double-minded man, even
at the moment when every hope of escape had disappeared.
416 NAVAL STRATEGY
I cannot help thinking that to this divided frame of
mind there contributed, not only the national prepossession
in favor of a Fortress Fleet, which could not but influence
an average ofiBcer even though he himself did not share it,
but also the exaggerated form of the theory of the Fleet in
Being. If a part of the fleet escaped to Vladivostok it would
be so much gain, — a fleet in being. Consequently, the re-
solve of combat d outrance^ which gave the only possibility of
a decisive issue, encountered the thought of escape and was
qualified by it. If this be so, again economy of material, in
this instance by saving a few ships, in itself a praiseworthy
object, militated against and prevented the exclusiveness
of purpose essential to great undertakings and to great
successes ; the result being a compromise, a sacrifice of
the principal to the accessory. According to a report of
Rozhestvensky's words, published some days before the
battle, he cherished the belief that if only a part of his fleet
got to Vladivostok, it would exert a serious control over
the Japanese communications and so affect the general war.
Yet it is evident that such diminished force could not
change the issue, though it might partially affect procedure
— increase the enemy's precautions ; but, unless the whole
fleet escaped, to reinforce itself at Vladivostok and fight
another day under better conditions, no decisive effect on
the war could be produced by the Russian navy. If he
must fight, — and sooner or later he must, — that moment
and that issue should be obscured by no looking to escape,
or to provision of supplies in the future. The chances
doubtless were against success ; but no success at all was
possible except in the resolve to discard every thought save
that of destroying now the enemy's fleet.
Criticism here is another case of inferring intentions
from actions; but, when the various parts of Rozhest-
vensky's conduct are taken together, the inference is
nearly irresistible that the exaggerated estimate of the
DISCUSSION OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 417
influence of an inferior fleet in being possessed his im-
agination. Besides the excessive coal stowage, he took
with him a train of transports, a notorious source of tacti-
cal embarrassment in battle, though doubtless equally a
source of refitment^ if he got them to Vladivostok ; and
there is no evidence of any attempt at advanced scouting
on his own part, or of driving off, as he might have done,
the Japanese scouts which showed up; the result being
that Togo knew all about his dispositions, and he knew
nothing about Togo's until he saw the enemy's main body.
Now I say, that, while all this was bad management in
the face of the enemy, and in so far bad tactics, the bad
tactics issued from an error of strategy; and the error in
strategy was due to the lack of unity of conception, of that
exclusiveness of purpose, which is the essence of strategy,
and which subordinates, adjusts, all other factors and con-
siderations to the one exclusive aim. While writing these
pages, I came across a few lines by one of the first of Ger-
man philosophical historians, Ranke, in one of his greatest
works, *' England in the Seventeenth Century." They
apply to policy, but policy is twin brother to strategy.
Permit me to quote them:
" Why did William III. get the better of James II. in
Ireland r Because he always kept his one great idea before
his eyes, amid the many perplexing circumstances which
surrounded him. The decision which he displayed at every
moment rested upon the fact that he had only one end^ and
that the one hnposed by the course of things,^^
Apply this to Rozhestvensky. The one end imposed on
him by the course of things was the destruction of the
Japanese fleet, which comprised every armored vessel Japan
could possibly muster for that war. Togo's signal before
the battle recognized this one end, and there was no reason
why his opponent should not have recognized it equally.
To reach Vladivostok was only a means to that end ; an
418 NAVAL STRATEGY
object most important, because, if attained, it would put
the Russians in the best possible condition for battle. But
this by no means superseded the one necessaiy aim, — battle.
More, it did not even postpone that aim, as a matter of
immediate consideration and preparation; for, though
escape through to Vladivostok might be possible, it was not
certain. It was not even probable, under all the conditions.
Therefore^ while eveiy forethought and care should have
been to effect escape, if possible, they should have been ac-
companied with the clear decision that, should battle be
forced, the fighting should have been qualified by no thought
of escape, and the fleet, like a ship cleared for action, should
have been stripped of all fleet encumbrances from the mo-
ment of leaving the Saddles. A fleet is half beaten
already when it goes into battle with one eye upon some-
thing else than fighting.
If Rozhestvensky had recognized these facts, in their
due importance and proportion, and had been convinced
that battle was his one aim, and that there was at least a
very real possibility that he could not postpone it till after
Vladivostok, it seems to me he must have reasoned thus :
I must have coal enough to reach Vladivostok, on a reason-
able calculation of the distance, and of the expenditures of
the ships ; both which were known. To this amount add
a fair margin of safety. This total should be carried for
the puipose of escape, if feasible ; with perhaps an addition
sufficient to last during battle, with funnels pierced, which
was a likely accident Again, there is for each ship a draft
of water which best meets her maneuvering needs. The
chances are that the enemy will await us either in the
narrower part of the sea, or near his navy yards. As there
is one position, that in the Straits of Korea, which &vors
both these objects, it is there I will probably have to fight,
if at all. Therefore, as far as possible, the coal carried by
the fleet on starting should be such that consumption up
DISCUSSION OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 419
to the moment of reaching the straits will put them in their
best tactical trim. The coal supply needed to reach
Vladiyostok is thus adjusted to the exigencies of battle.
Then as regards the transports. For the moment, on
this last fateful stretch, they are absolutely of no conse-^
quence as affecting results. The adjustment of them, to
the end of the battle, is to dismiss them out of mind and
presence. If beaten, the loss of them will not be of the
slightest consequence to Russia ; if successful, they can be
summoned from an appointed rendezvous, and escorted to
a destination under such protection as may then seem ex-
pedient An Austrian officer has suggested that if the
whole body had weighed together, and at night had sepa-
rated, the supply vessels proceeding under convoy by the
east of Japan might have escaped notice; or, if seen,
this report might have perplexed Togo, rather than en-
lightened him. Upon the suggestion I make no comment,
other than that it would have been one way of counting
out the supply ships.
The imminency of the occasion should have drawn, and
did draw, all Japan's fighting force to the Straits of Korea,
an element for Rozhestvensky's consideration. According
to Semenoff the auxiliary steamers Terek and Kuban were
sent off the east coast expressly to draw attention, but met
no one, and their presence was unknown to the Japanese.
I am not disposed to question, or to doubt, that if the
Russian squadron had escaped Togo, and if the separated
supply train had been intercepted, it would have been very
embarrassing to the ships of war refitting at Vladivostok*
Nor do I question that, in case of such escape, the coal
remaining in consequence of the deck loads taken would
have been of much value for future operations. The more
real and the g^reater those distracting considerations, like
those of William III. in Ireland, the more do they throw
into relief the greatness, as well as the necessity, of subor-
420 NAVAL STRATEGY
dinating them to the one thmg needful, namely, to be ready
to the utmost on the day of battle. They illustrate^ too,
how misleading is the disposition to compromise, to concede
something all around; to straddle the two horses, escape
and battle.
Rozhestvensky's course was a compromise, a mix-up of
escape and fighting ; a strategic blunder to begin with,
in not concentrating attention on the one needful thing
clearly indicated by the course of events, and hence result-
ing necessarily in a series of blunders, which comprehen-
sively may be called tactical. They all hang together, as
the results of a frame of mind ; the overloading with coal,
the increased danger of fire therefrom, the submersion of
the armor belts, the loss of speed and tactical capacity, the
neglect of scouting, the company of the transports, — each
of which is a tactical error, — all proceed from the failure
to observe that the one governing consideration of strategy,
in this war, was a naval battle under the most favorable
conditions. It is the repetition of the mistakes of the
Port Arthur division. When it becomes clearly imminent
that one may have to fight under conditions less favorable
than one would desire, conditions are changed ; but there
is no change of the principles involved. Vladivostok
reached, the principle would have required the utmost
preparation the yard offered, in the least possible time, so
as to be the most fit possible to fight At the Saddles, the
same fitness required the dismissal from influence upon
conduct of all thought of Vladivostok, and of supplies
there, so far as such thought might modify the preparation
for probable battle. It seems very probable that the defec-
tive conceptions deducible from Rozhestvensky's conduct
were emphasized and reinforced by the heavy- preoccupa-
tions about supplies, necessarily incidental to his anxious
outward voyage. His mind and morale had got a twist, a
permanent set, from which they could not recover.
DISCUSSION OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 421
Let us close here with the encomium which Lauf rey, a
hostile critic, passes upon the conduct of Napoleon, the
great master of strategy, in the interval between the disas-
ter of Essling and the victory of Wagram :
^^ Never had the maxim of sacrificing the accessory to the
principal, of which Napoleon's military conceptions afford
so many admirable examples, and which is true in every
art, been applied with more activity and fitness. The com-
plications which he most feared " — the perplexities, let me
interject, of William III. and of Rozhestvensky's concern
about supplies — ^^ were to him for the moment as though
they did not exist. No secondarv event had power to draw
him off from the great task which he had primarily assigned
to himself.''
Briefly, you will perceive that there is a concentration of
purpose, for conduct, as well as a concentration of numbers,
for action.
Taken as a whole, the naval strategy of the Japanese
during this war was marked by that accuracy of diagnosis,
concentration of purpose, and steadiness of conduct, which
were so strikingly wanting in their opponents. I propose
only a running commentary upon the more salient features ;
and in attempting this I intend to lay weight particularly
upon the perplexing and harassing circumstances under
which they labored, just because amid them they held fast
to correct conceptions, despite all temptations to waver.
It is particularly necessary thus to note their difficulties ;
for in regarding a series of successes, such as theirs, we are
prone to infer qualities so extraordinary as to be almost
superhuman, and thus, in vague admiration, to lose sight of
the useful commonplace instruction. Much of the com-
ment of the past five years has attributed to the Japanese
an extravagance of excellence over all other fighters, which
tends even to deprive their leaders of some of their due
credit. In reading for these lectures, I have been con*
422 NAVAL STRATEGY
m
tinually reminded, somewhat amusingly, of certain words
in the Bible, touching a similar prevalent impression in an
olden time : ^ Now the Egyptians are men, and not God ;
and their horses flesh, and not spirit"
One of the first remarks that fixed my attention was that
of an observer on the spot at the very b^inning of the
war : ** The Japanese are terribly influenced by the necessity
of preserving their battleships." This was nearly two
months before the Hatsuse and Tashima were sunk by
mines, on the same day. Consider then what the load
of anxiety must have been after the^ loss of those two ships,
which it ii^'as impossible to replace in kind, and for wliich
the two armored cruisers bought in Italy were but partial
substitutes. Fortunately for Japan then, the terms of her
alliance with Great Britain relieved her leaders from the
necessity of considering any other navy than the Russian.
She did not have to contemplate the entrance of any
European state into her quarrel ; a contingency which cer-
tain ominous incidents kept always before the eyes of the
United States in our hostilities with Spain.
When Japan began hostilities, she had to recognize that
in material force the total navy of Russia was much
superior to her own. Yet, to carry out her objects, she
must make an invasion over sea, an offensive movement on
a large scale, depending upon the control of the sea, not
only for the first success, but for the maintenance through-
out of her operations. In this offensive purpose she was
not hampered by any prepossessions in favor of a Fortress
Fleet, as were the Russians. I find no trace of any such
conceptions. On the contrary, Japan appears fully to have
grasped, and to have acted upon, the principle that the one
object of a navy is to control the sea ; the direct corollary
from which is that its objective is the enemy's navy — his
organized force afloat. This they recognized in two ways.
First, they allowed the Russians to assemble their vessels
DISCUSSION OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 423
in the Far East, until their navy as a whole was fairly
divided in two. Next, they made the leading feature in
their campaign to be attack, upon the half of the enemy's
fleet exposed to them. I allude not merely to the success-
ful torpedo attack on the vessels outside, with which hos-
tilities opened, but also to the fact that for two months
continuous attempts were made to harm those that were
left, as well within as without the. harbor; by bombard-
ments, by laying mines, and by attempting to close the
channel-way with sunken vessels. All these efforts were
dictated by one principle : the destroying or neutralizing
the enemy's fleet.
As the gunnery of the Russian forts improved, the same
principle, or necessity, forced upon the Japanese additional
care for their armored vessels. The range of bombardment
was gradually increased and great care exercised to select
dead angles. Security for themselves in this particular
matter took precedence of injury to the inside enemy;
because, dependent as they were upon controlling the sea,
and inferior in aggregate naval force, the possible gain by
bombardment did not nearly equal the possible injury from
an unlucky hit. The risk became unjustifiable ; but both
the care of their own ships, and the attack of the enemy's
proceeded from one principle, control of the sea. As re-
gards the effect from these naval bombardments, our naval
attacks in Port Arthur reported that the material damage
was slight, but that the persistent aggressive action of the
Japanese exercised at an early period a distinct and pro-
gressive deteriorating influence upon the morale of the
Russian fleet, particularly upon the senior officers. This
he must have gathered from other sources, as he himself
did not get into the place until May 8. It was bombard-
ment from the land side that finally drove the mechanics
from the Russian yards, and thus helped to determine the
attempted departure of the squadron, August 10.
424 NAVAL STRATEGY
When all these means — bombardment, mines, and chan-
nel blocking — proved ineffectual, the same conception of
the end in view, and recognition of what was ^ imposed by
the course of things," as Ranke has it, dictated the next
action of the Japanese. The main fleet was withdrawn
from the neighborhood of the port to a position remote
from torpedo attack; to the Elliott Islands, some sixty
miles from Port Arthur. There its security was further
provided for by an elaborate system of booms, which not
only covered the approaches to the islands but were carried
from them to the mainland. By this means were protected
both the anchorage of the transports, and the landing place
on the peninsula of the troops destined for the operations
against the fortress. This may be styled the defensive
basis of the naval operations before Port Arthur ; the fur-
thering control of the sea by preserving your own vessels
and supplies intact. This artificially protected area of sea
about the Elliott Islands became the advance base of both
land and naval operations, the concentration of which at
one point, when feasible, as in this case it was, possesses
evident advantages. It may be compared advantageously
with the position of the British under Wellington at Lisbon,
which served as both naval and military base during the
Peninsular War.
Offensively, not merely was the Russian fleet to be de-
prived of its refuge, forced out into the open, to fight,
by the siege operations, which when suflBciently advanced
would render the position untenable ; but in the meantime
it was effectively held in check, made unable to escape with-
out fighting, by an elaborate set of dispositions covering
the surrounding waters, and based upon the Elliott Islands.
These local dispositions are to be considered tactical, rather
than strategic, and therefore not within my particular prov-
ince. Nevertheless, I will name them, partly because,
taken as a whole, the establishing of a secondary base and
DISCUSSION OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 425
the deyelopment of operations upon it, are in principle
strategic, though the details are tactical; partly because
the whole action illustrates the unity of the underlying
strategic conception, which the Russians never mastered,
or, if they did, never carried out ; the conception, namely,
that the one thing necessary was to paraljrze the movement
of the enemy's fleet, or to destroy it.
The Japanese dispositions to this effect have been sum-
marized as *^ fences " by one of their officers, who I under-
stand was on Togo's staff. First, several lines of mines
moored in concentric circles round the entrances to Port
Arthur and ultimately watched day and night from lookout
towers on the heights of the Liao-tung Peninsula, as this
fell bit by bit into the hands of the Japanese land forces.
Immediately outside of these were the torpedo boats and
destroyers, forming a second line, supported by a third,
composed of second and third class cruisers. The fourth
fence was the main fleet at the Elliott Islands. The inner
lines correspond to the pickets, guards, and grand g^uards,
of an army, and have the same office, to prevent attack
from becoming surprise, by rapid development The mines
were intended, doubtiess, to sink an enemy who touched
one ; but their essential tactical value was to impose delay,
necessary to clear a channel, during which the Japanese
fleet, warned by its lookout vessels, would have time to
come up, as happened on the crucial occasions of June 28
and August 10, 1904. As a study in comparative tactics,
doubly instructive because so far separated in time as naval
epochs, and in material as sailing ships from steam and
torpedoes, I would suggest the comparison of these dis-
positions with those of the British blockade of Brest in
1800-1801. These I have analyzed in '' The Influence of
Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire."
The expected movements of the Port Arthur fleet, against
which these dispositions were taken, would have for their
426 NAVAL STRATEGY
object the reaching Yladivostok. Winter being over, the
great drawback to that port, ice, ceased to exist ; and the
Japanese recognized that the enemy's fleet, if it got there,
would be much more embarrassing to them. This, of course,
was a strategic consideration : to pjevent the enemy obtain-
ing a gain of position. The result of August 10, in the
return of the Russians to Port Arthur, was therefore rightly
claimed by the Japanese as a strategic success. Thus, a
Japanese officer, in a position to know the opinions of the
leaders, wrote to a Japanese paper :
*^ If the Russians had succeeded in breaking the blockade
on August 10, and several of their battleships and cruisers
had reached Vladivostok, which could not have been in-
vested for a long time, the Japanese navy and nation would
have been placed in a most embarrassing position as regards
the strategy of the second period of the fighting, namely,
the period after the Baltic fleet's coming."
To this end partly was due the moving of Kamimura's
armored cruisers, from before Yladivostok itself to the
Straits of Korea — or Tsushima. There they were more
immediately on hand to intercept the Port Arthur division,
should it effect a partial escape ; at hand also to reinforce
the battleship division should an action begun before Port
Arthur result in a running fight Kamimura, in short, was
at hand to cooperate, and by the officer whom I have
quoted is called the fifth fence. The two divisions of
Japanese armored ships, though separated, both occupied
interior positions relatively to Port Arthur and Vladivos-
tok ; and therefore were favorably placed for mutual sup-
port against either enemy, or against the junction of the
two. As a practical matter of fact, on the occasion of the
Russian sortie of August 10, Kamimura did steam from
Tsushima to the southern part of the Yellow Sea, — some
two hundred miles. There he would be most surely in the
path of any escaping Russians ; for they might turn south.
r
e
428 NAVAL STRATEGY
Japanese were tempted, and yielded in part ; but they were
very cautious, and soon desisted, not, however, before one
of their vessels, the Asahi, had an escape so narrow as to
illustrate the danger of the undertaking. In all this they
showed no particular originality, followed only accepted
rules. Their greatest contribution to naval strategy in
this war was the demonstration of exaggeration in the Fleet
in Being theory. This they did demonstrate, as far as one
conspicuous sustained success can be said to demonstrate
anything. The demonstration is qualified, of course, by the
fact that the Russian management of their fleet was so
inefficient.
The Fleet in Being School, which in fundamental concep-
tions is substantially one with the so styled Blue Water
School, attributes to naval force itself, independent of other
factors, an importance and efficacy which in my judgment
are exaggerated. It tends, for instance, to discard fortifi-
cation, or to undervalue unduly its advantage to national
defense and to maritime war&re. This line of thought, in
its modern form, derives from the late Admiral Colomb of
the British navy. While he cannot be held responsible
for every extreme utterance of his disciples, I think it a
fair presentation to say that he over-rates the proper de-
terrent effect upon over-sea operations exercised by a naval
force, when it is strong, though inferior. Thus he says of
the course of Torrington, the coiner of the phrase, in 1690,
" A fleet in being, even though it was discredited [i. «.,
beaten], inferior, and shut up behind unbuoyed sand banks,
was such a power in observation as to paralyze the action
of an apparently victorious fleet either against sea or shore.
This is the part of the Battle of Beachy Head which con-
stitutes its chief interest." ^
Again, in his third edition (1899), he refers to this
statement as defining his own opinion, and adds (page xli) :
1 " NaTal Warfare," 1890, p. 122.
^1
DISCUSSION OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 429
^The sea must be swept clear of defendiog ships or
squadrons before that further step in naval warfare, the
assault of territory, can be undertaken."
In the hands of some of his followers the mere existence
of a strong though inferior fleet, within a moderate distance,
should put a stop to an intended crossing until that fleet has
been destroyed. This conclusion can be supported, and is,
by historical instances in which such an effect has been
produced. But to show that a certain course has frequently
been followed does not show that course to be correct; just
as the Japanese contrary procedure in the late war, though
successful, does not prove conclusively and for all time that
it would be right to act as they did. Circumstances alter
cases ; yet, upon the whole, I incline to say that the dis-
tinctive note of the Fleet in Being dog^a is that no cir-
cimistance alters the truth of its proposition.
The difference between the course followed by the
Japanese and the proposition upheld by the Fleet in Being
School, as a whole, is that the Japanese, upon a fair calcu-
lation of probabilities, took a decisive step, a step that was
bound to lead to results, despite the near presence of a
strong hostile fleet ; that they did not try to win without
taking any risks, but only, to quote Napoleon, by getting
the most chances in their favor. Had they lost after all,
this particular error or the other might be charged against
them ; but in the main they would have been no less right
than success has proved them to be. The Port Arthur
fleet could have remained a fleet in being to this day, had
the Japanese desisted from transporting their troops until
they had destroyed it. It had only to stay in port. In
short, such a fleet, according to its advocates, by its mere
presence imposes upon its enemy inaction, paralysis, failure
without a chance of success, so long as it itself persists in
sticking in port. I think it not an exaggeration to say that
acceptance of this theory would have compelled the Japanese
480 NAVAL STRATEGY
to postpone iDciefinitely their land operations, attending the
enemy's pleasure as to naval action. The proof that this
is not over-stated is to be found in comments I have already
quoted. It is only just to say that there are men associated
with this line of naval thought who present their conclusions
more moderately. Thus, Sir George Clarke, long Secretaiy
to the Committee of Imperial Defence, wrote : *^ An effec-
tive fleet," presumably inferior, " is a most powerful deter-
rent to naval operations, and especially to the over-sea
transport of military forces." With this statement no one
will quarrel ; but the interest of the matter for us is to note
the danger of the extremes to which men run who formulate
military phrases without careful regard to all the factors.
It is now more than fifteen years since I read Colomb's
" Naval Warfare." It, therefore, is not fresh in my mind ;
but, in referring to it for this occasion, I found among the
leaves this memorandum, then made : ** It appears to me
that Colomb advocates too exclusively the abandonment of
a combined expedition upon the mere threat of a naval force
— not necessarily superior — but even equal or smaller.'*
Upon the historical instances given in support of his theory,
and which certainly show that this or that man did abandon
an enterprise because of such a fleet in being, my comment
was, in several cases, that had the action been different the
result evidently would have been success. I then sunmied
up the general impression made upon me by this proposition
that it disregards Napoleon's sound dictum that ** War cannot
be made without running risks." This is the correlative of
his other saying, just quoted, that war, accurately conceived,
consists in getting the most of the chances in your favor.
These maxims not only justified risks, but they justify
also the statement that a failure may be more creditable
than a success; for failure may ensue upon the utmost
accuracy of calculation and energy of action, while a success
may be the result of chance, or of mere overpowering force*
DISCUSSION OF THE RUSSO^APANESE WAR 481
The two questions in case of a risk which is under con-
sideration are: Does the end justify the risk? and has
every practicable precaution been taken to insure success?
Nelson, proposing an assault upon Leghorn, endorsed
Napoleon's maxim unconsciously; indeed, long before it
was written. He proposed no mere adventure, he carefully
discussed details, but he afiirmed distinctiy the necessity
for accepting risks*
<* Something must be left to chance. Our only con-
sideration, Is the honor and benefit to our country worth
the risk? If so, in Ood's name, let us get to work."
*^ You may depend," he wrote on another occasion, *^if I
find the French convov in any place where there is a prob-
ability of attackinfif tnem, they shall be either taken or
destroved at the nsk of my squadron, which is built to
be risked on proper occasions.
CHAPTER XV
RELATIONS OF COAST FORTIFICATIONS TO
NAVAL STRATEGY
THE war between Japan and Russia has been in-
structiye upon many subjects, but I apprehend
in none more so than in the real question ulti-
mately involved in the matter now before us —
the relations of coast fortification to naval force; for in
this we are dealing not with details, however valuable, but
with broad general principles fruitful of a right or wrong
national policy. The Blue Water School is the lineal de-
scendant in the next generation of the Fleet in Being
SchooL The two in succession afford illustration of a prin-
ciple bearing its due fruit, by development. Both involve
the relations between land operations and fleets. In this,
as in all military estimates, a safe solution depends upon an
accurate adjustment being reached between the two, based
upon a full realization of the functions each is to discharge
in that common action we call combination ; by which the
two 80 act as to be in effect one. Coast fortification, sea-
coast fortresses, are on a mental border line, between the
conceptions of naval and military as distinct classes of op-
erations of war; just as they are strong points occupied
upon the physical boundary which nature draws, between
the spheres respectively of fleets and armies. It is there-
fore not extraordinary that debate should arise on this de-
batable ground.
When war exists between two nations separated by the
sea, it is evident that the one which invades territory occu-
pied by the other takes the offensive, and that the instru-
COAST FORTIFICATIONS 438
ment of offense is the arm which carries on the invasion,
that is, the army. The navy preserves, and assures, the
communications of the army. That the navy alone makes
invasion possible, does not make it the invading force.
That it alone makes the offensive possible, does not make
it the offensive arm. That its own mode of action is offen-
sive does not necessarily constitute it the offensive factor
in a combined operation. In the joint action it takes the
defensive. That, in pursuit of this defensive r(^le, it takes
continual offensive action whenever opportunity offers to
destroy an enemy's ships, does not alter the essential char-
acter of its operations. It defends by offensive action,
wherever its guns reach ; but it defends. This certainly
was the function of the Japanese navy in the late war.
Again, granting an invasion, what relations to the war
is borne by the coast fortresses of the country invaded?
What function do they discharge ? Apparently defensive,
on the first glance ; but is this a true account of the mat-
ter? Is the obvious the exact truth? On the contrary;
just as the method of the navy is offensive, while its func-
tion is defensive, so the method of the coast fortress is
defensive, but its function offensive. So far from defend-
ing a country, a coast fortress in itself cannot protect
against invasion, unless there is no coast line except the
fortress itself ; — a condition manifestly impossible. Land-
ing can almost always be effected beyond its reach. Port
Arthur in itself did not produce an iota of effect upon the
landing of the Japanese besieging force, which took place
sixty miles away. During that part of the operation.
Port Arthur did not begin to defend itself, much less
the country.
Fortresses, coast or other, defend only in virtue of the of-
fensive power contained behind their walls. A coast fortress
defends the nation to which it belongs chiefly by the fleet
it shelters. Its works, and the troops which man them.
484 NAVAL STRATEGY
conduce to the activity of that fleet, by assuring to it sup-
plies, repairs, and shelter in extremity. This being the
case, it is plain that the coast fortresses of an invaded
country are really instruments of offense, although the
country itself, by the mere fact of being invaded, is waging
a defensive war. The particular characteristics of the
fortress are a matter of detail only ; its essential function
is offensive, because it conduces to defense only by facili-
tating offense. This is exactly the relation of fortresses to
a land frontier. Their protective function to their country
does not extend beyond the range of their guns ; indeed,
usually does not reach so far. It is because of the shelter
given to garrisons, large enough to be able to take danger-
ous action against the communications of an invading
army that the fortress defends. The garrison being on the
flank of the enemy's communications menaces the life, and
so protects by arresting advance. It is its offensive power
which exerts the effect; not its defensive.
In land warfare, it becomes immediately obvious that
a fortress must be secured on every side, either by nature
or by art Fortification is the art of supplying deficiencies
in natural protection. On an exposed sea frontier, this is
equally true, but much less obvious. We have come to
look upon sea-coast fortification so entirely as a defensive
measure against fleets, that sight has been lost in great
measure of that true conception of fortresses as offensive
instruments which I have been asserting. The conse-
quence is that it might be possible to deprive our fleet of
the use of this or that important naval base, by an army
landing some distance away, as the Japanese did at Port
Arthur ; only I fear much more easily, for I doubt if any
one of our naval bases is nearly as well protected on the
land side as was Port Arthur.
This result, if true, is to my mind an interesting illustra-
tion of the gradual working of a mistaken principle* Men
COAST FORTIFICATIONS 486
begin : Coast fortresses serve only for defense. They con-
tinue : The navy defends better than any fortress can. They
conclude : Therefore money spent on fortresses is wasted,
and should be spent on the fleet This is, briefly, the syl-
logism of the Blue Water SchooL Granting the premise,
the conclusion follows; but the premise is erroneous.
Strategically, coast fortresses are not for defense, but for of-
fense, by sheltering and sustaining that force which against
an invader is the offensive arm ; that is, the navy. It fol-
lows that they must be developed on the land side as well
as on the sea side, in order to preserve them against reduc-
tion, either by coup de main or by prolonged siege, as
at Port Arthur. Having regard to all the circumstances,
Santiago may be said to have fallen by coup de mainj as
Port Arthur by siege. In both cases, the fleet was deprived
of a base. That is the essential feature in the result ; the
accompanying destruction of the fleet in both cases was
simply a cumulative incident, though most satisfactory.
Had either fleet escaped to another fortress, to Havana or
to Vladivostok, the gain or loss of the port from which
it had escaped would have mattered comparatively little to
either belligerent, because the offensive element of the place
had escaped, and could be utilized elsewhere.
Defense on the sea side, against direct naval attack,
is comparatively easy; because on that side siege works
cannot be constructed, and ships, the remaining means of
attack, are at a recognized disadvantage contending against
forts. Some dispute this; but the Japanese will not be
accused of lack of daring, and they did not long expose
their ships to the Russian forts. During the bombardment
period, they increased the range, an element of safety ; and
even so, one of their ships, the Asahi, had a narrow escape
from serious injury. It is, therefore, on the land side that
coast fortresses most need to be made secure, for there
nature does least for them.
486 NAVAL STRATEGY
These principles are geneial, but of cooise must be
modified, adjusted, to the requirements of each case.
Granting even a supreme navy, such as that of Great
Britain has been in past times, coast fortresses are needed ;
for there never has been a time, and never can be, that the
navy of an extended territorial power can everywhere by
itself alone prevent invasion. As Sandwich wrote to Rod-
ney, the navy cannot be in force in every quarter. In the
past, the British navy secured the British Islands ; but in
other seas, it needed Gibraltar and similar positions. The
necessity of fortification in the various positions differed,
according to the facility with which a possible enemy could
reach them. Even in the British Islands themselves, a
successful invasion, in other times or now, would doubt-
less propose to itself the seizure and destruction of dock-
yards as a principal end, if undefended on the land side.
The story of Gibraltar is familiar to us alL It survived in
virtue of natural and acquired defensive power which has
passed into proverb ; but take the case of Malta and Egypt
in 1798. These were not British possessions; but they
were great British interests. Had Alexandria been a British
fortress, adequately garrisoned, the interference with Bona-
parte's operations in Egypt would have been even more seri-
ous than the subsequent blockade of the place. He would
have had to reduce it, as he afterwards had to reduce Acre,
and failed ; a failure which compelled abandonment of his
Syrian enterprise. Malta, too, would have detained him
longer, if adequately defended. This is shown by the
fact that to regain it took the British two years, by
siege and blockade ; and how essential it was to accom-
plish this is sufficiently proved by Nelson's eagerness in
the matter.
Besides the difficulty of an enemy's reducing a coast
fortress, due to its distance and surroundings, an important
consideration in determining the strength to be given it.
COAST FORTIFICATIONS 487
regarded as a naval base, is the number of available ports
on a particular coast. Take, for instance, our Pacific Coast.
The number of commercial ports suitable for a fleet is
limited as compared with the Atlantic Coast. The loss of
one of the best is therefore a greater misfortune. Assum-
ing our battle fleet to' be concentrated in one ocean or the
other, it seems clear that, if in the Atlantic, and war were
to make necessary to transfer it to the Pacific, the loss of a
naval station there before the fleet's arrival would be more
serious than \sl the reverse case ; because there the alterna-
tive harbors are fewer.
Though such misfortune would in any event be very
serious to a fleet, it seems scarcely possible that an enemy
could so occupy in force all available positions on the At-
lantic and Gulf that the fleet on arriving should find no
place to which to go, and to receive the supplies necessary
to place it on a fighting basis. The enemy himself must
concentrate. His battle fleet therefore can be at only one
place in a coast line of two thousand miles ; and it will not
be the case that he can choose hicr position with the com-
parative assuredness with which Togo settled himself at
Masampo, knowing that the enemy had but one possible
port, Vladivostok.
Togo's problem would have been more difficult, if the
Russians had still had the two ports, Port Arthur as well as
Vladivostok; but even so he would have been greatly
helped by the projection of the Korean peninsula, which so
singularly resembles that of Florida. The correspondence
of Key West to Masampo, in point of situation, is very
striking ; but the great difference of scale would have made
Rozhestvensky's success less probable than that of a United
States admiral approaching our eastern coast Evasion by
the approaching fleet, if desired, would here be easier; in-
terception by the opponent more difficult. Besides, Mas-
ampo was practically a Japanese possession ; its analogue,
488 NAVAL STRATEGY
Key West, we may hope — even though the hope be over
sanguine — will be sufficiently fortified to stand out against
ship attack. If then. New York, our principal yard, had
passed into an enemy's possession, there would remain to
an approaching American fleet, Boston, Norfolk, Guantan-
amo, Key West.
From the conditions stated may be inferred the immi-
nent necessity of constituting coast fortresses of the secur-
est type on both our Atlantic and Pacific coasts; but
especially upon the latter, because it is the weaker in point
of the elements which make for sea power. In any scheme
affecting the defense of the Pacific Coast, the Hawaiian
Islands would naturally command conspicuous consideration.
I conceive that our " fleet in being '* — by which I mean
not the inferior fleet thus conventionally named, but one
at least equal in intrinsic efficiency and numbers to that of
any existing state, except Great Britain, — needs fortified
ports, to assure its action; ports fortified adequately on
the land side, and provided with garrisons suitable in num-
ber, in efficiency, and in stored resources, to maintain a
siege at least during the period necessary for the fleet to be
transferred from the one coast to the other. In such a
case, a fleet acts with confidence, because assured of finding
the means which it needs for effective offensive action ;
and the known fact that it is so assured will constitute a
factor of international consideration, making for peace, of
more than double the weight that can attach to it if it be
possible that, on arriving off a threatened coast, the fleet
may find a chief naval station in the bands of the enemy,
as did Rozhestvensky. It is of course a commonplace, cer-
tified to by experience, that troops unfit to meet regulars
in the field can hold fortified lines; Jackson at New
Orleans, Bunker Hill in measure, are instances which oc-
cur at once to American memories. It is vain to expect
that from our civilian population can be organized armies
COAST FORTIFICATIONS 489
speedily fit to meet in the field those of the military na-
tions ; but it may be possible to organize the system of de-
fenses for the naval ports, making of them coast fortresses
of the Port Arthur type, which a citizen soldiery could
hold; if willing, in their local and national interests, to
undergo the comparatively brief training necessary to make
them efficient supports to a regular garrison.
In short, and in conclusion, there has been nothing in the
whole course of the war between Japan and Russia so
illuminative as the part played by Port Arthur. It is thus
illuminative just because the light it throws is l^ht upon
a point which might have been considered doubtful, since
it has been so much disputed by that particular trend of
thought, embodied successively under the epithets *^ Fleet
in Being *' and " Blue Water." I myself never have had
any doubt on the matter, so that I received no particular
instruction. My opinion was merely confirmed, not changed.
Conditions being what they were when the war began, the
entire issue turned upon a coast fortress ; upon its posses-
sion by one party or the other. The question would not
have been altei'ed in principle, only in application, if the
Russian fleet had been concentrated at first in Vladivostok.
There is something to be said in favor of each port ; but the
balance inclines to Vladivostok, granting the effective ice-
breakers. Investment by land would, I think, be more
difficult, a larger and more protracted operation, although I
cannot pronounce decisively on that point, being outside my
province. It looks more difficult
As a maritime question, however, it is clear, that if the
whole Russian Far East squadron of armored ships had
been concentrated in Vladivostok, as it might have been,
it must have been invested there, as it actually was at
Port Arthur ; and if the place held out till Rozhestvensky
approached (which is more than probable, seeing how
long Port Arthur resisted, though only a recent acquisition
440 NAVAL STRATEGY
of Russia), Rozhestvensky on arrival would have had
two ports to enter instead of one. No position, such as
Masampo, would have enabled Togo effectively to hold in
check both Russian divisions. In the contingency im-
agined, one perfectly possible, he must either have ac-
quiesced in Rozhestvensky entering Port Arthur to clean
and refit for further action ; or, in order to prevent this,
must have quitted his watch of Vladivostok, permitting
the exit of the fleet within and the possible junction of the
two Russian bodies. This, if effected, would not only have
constituted a great numerical preponderance, but would
have increased Russian chances by the moral effect that
a successful combination and evident superiority afford.
If this junction were thwarted, by the Japanese navy
clinging to one port or the other, it would have at least
to fight in rapid succession two enemies, each of which
equalled it in material force ; nearly, if not quite. To the
weaker fleet such successive engagement gives a better
chance than that against the two united. Nevertheless,
the odds remain heavy ; and the Japanese would not have
had that precious opportunity for entire refit, gained for
them by the long interval between the fall of Port Arthur
and the arrival of Rozhestvensky.
To exhaust suppositions, it may be imagined that, under
the circumstances of the Russian Far East fleet being in
Vladivostok, the Japanese would have undertaken to reduce
it and Port Arthur simultaneously, realizing as they would
the awkward situation constituted for them by the arrival of
the Baltic fleet with the two ports still open to it, and the
Eastern naval division still in existence. This dilemma, pos-
sible for the Russians to constitute from the first, is proba-
bly the strongest argument for Vladivostok. The Russian
fleet there would have imposed upon the Japanese diver-
gent points of interest, tending to divide their efforts. The
absence of the Baltic division g^ve the Japanese the day
COAST FORTIFICATIONS 441
of opportunity which they admirably improved. The Rus-
sians helped them further by putting together the two ob-
jects, Port Arthur and their fleet, close by the points where
the intended invasion of Korea and Manchuria must begin.
Being for the moment inferior, and on the defensive, in-
stead of provoking their enemy to divide his forces, they
compelled him, by their own dispositions, to concentrate at
the point most dangerous to themselves. In this they cir-
cumscribed the area in which the energies of Japan must be
exerted, and enabled her entirely to disregard Vladivostok,
which gave no support in the conflict, because eliminated
by Russia herself. That the Russians so acted was due,
almost certainly, to their wish to preserve Port Arthur,
and to their vicious theory of a Fortress Fleet ; a fleet sub-
servient to a fortress, instead of the fortress subservient to
the fleet. It would appear from the comment of eye-wit-
nesses on the action of the Port Arthur fleet, that there
was at no time a disposition to take advantage of naval
opportunities ; that is, of the opportunity which offered to
injure Japanese vessels, otherwise than by stationary mines,
which were used extensively. Yet, though not disposed to
use their fleet, they tied it to the fortress.
Under proper conceptions, the Russian fleet, if at Vladi-
vostok, somewhat inferior, but not decisively so — as was
proved so late as August 10 — would by its menace to Jap-
anese communications have impelled them to besiege and
blockade, as they did at Port Arthur. Reasoning from
what the Japanese actually did we know that the Russian
division, whether at Vladivostok or Port Arthur, would
not, and, in my judgment, should not, have deterred them
a day in tnmsporting their troops. Having determined on
war, they saw before them, as clear as though written in
letters of fire, that the time which could elapse before the
Baltic fleet got out, gave their one opportunity to obtain
decisive success; success that would give them, though
442 NAVAL STRATEGY
the weaker, a good fighting chance. They expected, too, at
the first, that Port Arthur would fall very much sooner
than it did ; and with it the fleet, which would be in fact
the one really decisive effect open to them. That gained,
they could fight on with reasonable prospect. As confirm-
ing this statement, bear in mind continually Togo's signal
to his fleet when Rozhestvensky was sighted, although by
that time the fall of Port Arthur and the accompanying
destruction of half the Russian navy were already accom-
plished facts. It is known that even then the anxiety of
the Japanese Government was intense concerning the Bal-
tic fleet, and so continued until its long delay in arriving
had enabled them to refit their vessels.
The same strategic reasoning would have held for Japan,
if the Russian fleet had been in Vladivostok. It would
have compelled them to besiege and blockade. If, for the
reasons I have advanced, they undertook Port Arthur
simultaneously, the two operations would have taken
one hundred and fifty thousand men from the army ad-
vancing in Manchuria; besides which, the second siege
would add immensely to the expense which so drained
Japan, and which undoubtedly was the chief factor in
causing her to wish peace. A Japanese officer near to Ad-
miral Togo wrote for publication, some time afterwards,
with reference to the attempted escape of August 10 : *' If
the bulk of the Port Arthur squadron had got to Vladi-
vostok, the Japanese would have been greatly embarrassed
for the rest of the war, and the danger from the Baltic
squadron greatly increased." There seems little reason for
doubting that the same consequences would have followed
if the Port Arthur division from the beginning had been
in Vladivostok.
The misuse of their powerful division in Poit Arthur by
the Russians is the more suggestive, the more illustrative
of the disastrous consequences flowing from a false principle,
COAST FORTIFICATIONS 448
such as Fortress Fleet, because from the beginning they had
formulated a general plan of campaign which they carried
into action ; a plan which was correct for the party momen-
tarily weaker, but ultimately stronger, as Russia was.
The intelligence officer of one of our ships stationed at
Newchwang, at the beginning of the war, reported that the
common talk among the Russian officers there was, that
they could not hold the Liao-Tung peninsula, on which
Port Arthur is, nor yet Lower Manchuria ; that they would
garrison Port Arthur for a siege, and that the army in
the field would fall back successively on Liao-Yang and
Mukden, to Harbin, disputing the defensible positions^ but
falling back. Harbin reached, they would make a stand,
reinforced by the troops and material already^accumulated
there during the retreat, and to be yet further increased, as
far as necessary, while they continued to hold the place.
Then, when all was ready, they would assume the aggres-
sive in numbers sufficient to bear down all opposition.
Harbin, in its turn, would thus have illustrated the useful-
ness of fortresses.
*
Such common talk proceeds from one of two causes;
probably from both. Either it is leakage from higher
quarters, or it is what is clearly indicated to instructed
military men as the correct course, which this certainly
was. Europatkin was in the exact situation of the
Archduke Charles retreating before the French in 1797;
the year after his successful campaign in the Danube
valley, already largely cited. Of the situation in 1797,
Bonaparte wrote to his Government:
*' If the enemy had committed the follv of awaiting me,
I should have beaten them ; but if they nad continued to
fall back, had joined a part of their forces from the Rhine
and had overwhelmed me, then retreat would have been
difficult, and the loss of the army of Italy might entail
that of the Republic."
444 NAVAL STRATEGY
Europatkin^s plan was essentially correct, and in his
retreat he had got no farther than Mnkden, when Japan
indicated her willingness to treat.
Of the Russian scheme, Port Arthur was an essential
feature. It provoked the Japanese to detach from their
main advance a body of, from first to last, over one
hundred thousand men.^ They were compelled to do this
by no point of national susceptibility because of the wrong
done them by Russia, France, and Germany, in 1895, —
though that may have counted, — but by the necessity of
smashing the naval division within before the Baltic fleet
arrived out As we have seen, the margin of time by which
they gained this relief, though sufficient, was not too great ;
and we know, too, that the commander of the fortress was
condemned to death for premature surrender. The Russian
retention of Port Arthur was therefore no compromise
with national pride or military hesitancy. It was a correct
adjustment, of that feature of the Russian conditions, to
the campaign as a whole ; subordinate to the main plan,
but conducive to its success. The numbers of the Russian
main army were reduced by the amount of the garrison ;
but in order to overcome the garrison, the enemy had to
reduce his force by from double to treble the same amoimt
This excellent disposition moreover contributed to the
delay which was the essential first object of the Russians.
Port Arthur here effected in kind, and came near effecting
in degree, the same purpose that Genoa did in 1800, in the
campaign of Marengo. The siege of Genoa held the Aus-
trian general, Melas, while Bonaparte was crossing the St.
1 Sir W. Nicholson, Chief of the British Imperial Greneral Staff, in a pref-
ace to a book entitled *' The Siege and Fall of Port Arthur/' by W. Richmond
Smith, estimates the Japanese force needed to capture Port Arthur at not less,
in the aggregate, than one hundred and fifty thousand men. (See American
Historical Eerie w, April, 1911 ; page 621.) The Japanese losses in the siege
have been estimated independently at fifty-nine thousand. (JoonuU of the
Royal Artillery, October, 1905; page 822.)
COAST FORTIFICATIONS 445
Bernard, and until he had assembled his army in Lombardy
across the Austrian communications ; just as the arrival of
Rozhestvensky, if Port Arthur and its fleet were still stand-
ing, would have menaced the Japanese sea communications.
Genoa had obtained the delay that Bonaparte needed ; not
till then did the emaciated garrison yield to starvation what
they had denied to force. There seems no sufficient reason
to doubt that an equal obduracy of resistance at Port
Arthur might have accomplished the same ; but Stoessel
was not Mass^na. I myself, writing before the sortie of
August 10, and depending wholly upon the information
open to the public, had then occasion to note the urgency
of the Japanese navy for the speedy reduction of Port
Arthur, and the sense of danger latent in the simultaneous
existence of the port and of the still distant Baltic fleet.
The Japanese Navy Department cried, ** Haste I" the
Russian coast fortress replied, ''Delay I"
SO/ the two parts of the Russian scheme, a true combin-
ation, in which the parts were two but the action one, were
working successfully, each bearing its share ; but the com-
mander of the fortress proved inadequate, and the fortress
fleet, however inspired, did nothing. Delay was obtained ;
opportunity offered ; but delay is useless if insufficient, and
opportunity worthless when not improved. It is of little
avail to postpone the evil hour, if you must encounter it at
last. Nevertheless, although the delay purchased by the
resistance of Port Arthur did not obtain ultimate victory
for Russia, it most probably affected unfavorably the bar-
gaining power of Japan in the peace negotiations ; based
as this must be on the degree of her advance and general
position of advantage.
There is one further conclusion to be drawn from the
war between Japan and Russia, which contradicts a pre-
vious general impression that I mjrself have shared, and
possibly in some degree have contributed to diffuse. That
446 NAVAL STRATEGY
impression is, that navies depend upon maritime com-
merce as the cause and justification of their existence.
To a certain extent, of course, this is true ; and, just be-
cause true to a certain extent, the conclusion is more
misleading. Because partly true, it is accepted as unqual-
ifiedly true. Russia has little maritime commerce, at least
in her own bottoms ; her merchant flag is rarely seen ; she
has a very defective sea coast ; can in no sense be called a
maritime nation. Yet the Russian navy had the decisive
pai*t to play in the late war ; and the war was unsuccessful,
not because the navy was not large enough, but because it
was improperly handled. Probably, it also was intrinsically
insufficient — bad in quality; poor troops as well as poor
generalship. The disastrous result does not contravene
the truth that Russia, though with littie maritime shipping,
was imperatively in need of a navy.
I am not particularly interested here to define the rela-
tions of commerce to a navy. It seems reasonable to say
that, where merchant shipping exists, it tends logically to
develop the form of protection which is called naval ; but it
has become perfectly evident, by concrete examples, that a
navy may be necessary where there is no shipping. Russia
and the United States to-day are such instances in point.
More and more it becomes clear, that the functions of nav-
ies is distincfly military and international, whatever their
historical origin in particular cases. The navy of the United
States, for example, took its rise from purely commercial
considerations. External interests cannot be confined to
those of commerce. They may be political as well as com-
mercial; may be political because commercial, like the
claim to "the open door" in China; may be political
because military, essential to national defense, like the
Panama Canal and Hawaii ; may be political because of
national prepossessions and sympathies, race sympathies,
such as exist in Europe, or traditions like the Monroe Doc-
COAST FORTIFICATIONS 447
trine. The Monroe Doctrine in its beginnings was partly
an expression of commercial interest, directed against a re*
newal of Spanish monopoly in the colonial system ; it was
partly military, defensive against European aggressions and
dangerous propinquity ; partly political, in sympathy with
communities struggling for freedom.
A broad basis of mercantile maritime interests and ship-
ping will doubtless conduce to naval efficiency, by supply-
ing a reserve of material and personnel. Also, in repre-
sentative governments, military interests cannot without
loss dispense with the backing which is supplied by a
widely spread, deeply rooted, civil interest, such as mer-
chant shipping would afford us.
To prepare for war in time of peace is impracticable to
commercial representative nations, because the people in
general will not give sufficient heed to military necessities,
or to international problems, to feel the pressure which in-
duces readiness. All that naval officers can do is to realize
to themselves vividly, make it a part of their thought, that
a merchant shipping is only one form of the many which the
external relations of a country can assume. We have such
external questions in the Monroe Doctrine, the Panama
Canal, the Hawaiian Islands, the market of China, and, I
may add, in the exposure of the Pacific Coast, with its
meagre population, insufficiently developed resources, and
somewhat turbulent attitude towards Asiatics. The United
States, with no aggressive purpose, but merely to sustain
avowed policies, for which her people are ready to %ht,
although unwilling to prepare, needs a navy both numerous
and efficient, even if no merchant Vessel ever again ffies the
United States flag. If we hold these truths clearly and
comprehensively, as well as with conviction, we may prob-
ably affect those who affect legislation. At all events, so
to hold will do no harm.
:l
nh
INDEX
Aden, acquisition of, by England,
68.
Adige, the, in Bonaparte's cam-
paign of 1796, 187, 251.
Adjustment and Compromise, the
distinction between, explained,
386-391; the distinction be-
tween, illustrated by Rozhest-
vensky*8 movements, 405-407.
Advanced Front, reason for, 250,
251 ; supreme instance of, in
wars of 1793-1815, 251; held
by fleets at sea, 251 ; advantages
of, increased by holding of
nearby fortified places, 251 ; ex-
amples of, strengtbened by
strong places, 251-253; princi-
ple of, applied to the Caribbean
Sea and the Gulf of Mexico,
253, 254, 274; distance of ob-
jective from, an element of dif-
ficulty, 263; supplemented by
depot in front, 264 ; when fleet is
not strong enough to drive en-
emy out of the field, 274-276. See
Advanced Position, Bases,
Lines, Ports, Strategic
Lines, Strategic Points.
Advanced Position, in time of
peace, 127, 128; instances of,
128-130: the reason for, 129;
British Islands a case of, 129,
130; should be continuous by
land and extensive, 131. See
Advanced Front.
Africa, Northern, cause of politi-
cal conditions in, 305.
Algiers, an important base, 87.
Alliances, their weakness due to
inferior power of concentration,
43.
Alsace, taken by France, 63.
American Independence, War of,
188, 189, 261, 262.
Anegada Passage, 341, 348, 352,
364.
Antigua, 357, 358, 364.
Areola, battle of, 252.
Armaments, the determining in-
I fluence of, even when no blood
is shed, 76, 78, 79, 95.
Armored Cruisers, 390, 391.
Army, its part in coast defense,
141, 143.
Arsenals, advisable to have at least
two, 169; define position and,
in great degree, length of base
line, 207. See Navy-yards.
Art, and science, the distinction
between, 299.
Art of Naval War, possible, 114,
115; principles of, few, 119.
Artificial Channels, 323, 324.
Asiatic Immigration, connected
with the Open Door and the
Monroe Doctrine, 197 ; on the
Pacific coast, would mean Asi-
atic occupation, 197.
Assembling a force, offensive
strength dependent on power of,
153-156.
Athenians, defeat of, before Syra-
cuse, 222-230 ; the tactical sys-
tem of, 227 note.
Atlantic Coast, of United States,
compared to the Pacific coast as
450
INDEX
regftrda available ports, 487;
fortresses should be iiistitated
on, 438.
Attack, in land waifare, nsoally
determined by oonditions of
l^ond, 46^ 46; on flank pre-
ferred, 46, 47 ; hi naml taetios,
47; on van or rear, 47-49.
Ansterlits, battle of, 24, 8&
Australasia, and the British navy.
Lord Kitchener on, 182.
Anstria, her annexation of Bosnia
and HenegOTina, 9, 18, 122, 806 ;
at Hohenlinden and Ansterliti,
24; war of, with France (1685-
1648), 27-81, 84, 40-48, 61-68;
ports of , in the Mediterranean,
88; in the war of 1689-1697,
88-96; in European politios in
1897 and to-day, 104, 108; and
Germany, 109, 184; her interest
in the Mediterranean, 184, 189,
286.
Badajoz, in the Peninsular War,
64, 244-246.
Bahama Banks, 811, 888, 339.
Bahama Channel, 338, 339.
Bahamas, the, 311.
Balance of Power, 103, 108, 109.
Barbados, 364.
Bases, of operations, local ports as,
necessary for control of commer-
cial routes, 68; of England, in
the Mediterranean, 68; perma-
nent, the bearing of, upon opera-
tions, 76, 86, 87; acquired by
Mazarin in the Mediterranean,
77; want of local, in time of
Cromwell, made influence of
England in Mediterranean tran-
sient, 78; temporary, 87; and
stations, naval, not synonymous,
87; of England, France, Aus-
tria, in the Mediterranean, 87,
88; EngHsh oeeupatioD of Cadui
in war of 168»-1697, 92-4N(;
naval, vsquirementa of, are posi-
tbn, strength, lesouroes, 98,
182; fixed naval, obtained hj
Eni^d by F^aoe of Utredit,
98; naval strategy of value in
acquiring, 121-124; neeessaiy
for politioal influence in unset-
tled regions, 122; certain, as
particular cases of advanced
positions, 180; hooie, 167; of
operation, coastlines with sev^
oral suiti^le ports aie, 168; of
supi^, Chesapeake Bay and
New Yoi^ 169; of operations^
all fortified ports on same sea
frontier will form, 171 ; of opera-
tions, the needs o^ 171, 172 ; of
operations, fortified, are as need-
ful to a fleet as to an anny, 191;
principles whidi should govern
the selection and preparation 0^
191-195; development of Great
Britaivs qrstem o( 198, 194;
consideratiohs regarding those
of the United States, 196-198 ;
maintenance of, depends on
navy, 198 ; secondary, should be
constituted on same principles
as those on home frontier, 200;
secondary, choice among, im-
portant, if theater of war be ex-
tensive, 201, 202; secondary,
how obtained, 202, 203; direct
and indirect attack of, 208 ; the
choice of, in maritime expe-
ditions, 205; of Great Britain,
the shifting of, 206; of the
United States in the Gulf of
Mexico, 206 ; great arsenals de-
fine position and, in large degree,
length of, 207; cutting loose
from, 212; local, for naval force
in distant operations, evidence
for necessity for, 261, 262; rarely
INDEX
461
attacked until predominanoe is
established, 263 ; attack of cue-
my'8, most effective measure for
defense of Panama Canal, 264,
265 ; blockade of, may be surest
way of bringing fleet within
reach, 271, 272 ; aim should be,
to reduce those of enemy to
single point, 273 ; of action, local,
of defendant fleet, 291. See Ad-
vanced Front, Advanced
Position, Lines, Ports,
Strategic Lines, Strategic
Points.
Battle, concentration applies to,
45 ; choice of position for, 218-
220; of Areola^ 252; of Austei^
litB, 24, 85; of Beachy Head,
90, 21^ 267; of Blenheim, 98;
of Cape St. Vincent, 47; of
Copenhagen, 286; of Elba, 70;
of Hohenlinden, 24 ; of Kentbh
Knock, 71; of the Japan Sea,
49, 178 ; of La Hohgne, 90 ; of
the Nile, 186, 233, 234, 238,
256, 257, 260; of Nordlingen,
84, 89, 41 ; of Plymouth, 71.
Battleships, increase in size of,
as affecting certain strategic
points, 376, 377.
Bavaria, in the Thirty Tears'
War, 62, 63 ; in the War of the
Spanish Succession, 96-98.
Beachy Head, baUle of, 90, 218,
267.
Beehler, Commodore, remarks on
Key West, 377, 378.
Belgium, in the Thirty Tears'
War, 29, 30, 62, 63.
Belize, 349-351.
Bermuda, 135, 859.
Bismarck, Prince von, did not
contemplate external expan-
sion, 111.
Bizerta, an important base, 87,
128.
Blake, Robert, 72, 78-80, 118.
Blenheim, battle of, 98.
Blockade, the ease of running,
145.
Blockaders, as alEeoted by devel-
opments in submarine, torpedo,*
and wireless, 8.
Blockships, 147.
Blue Water School, 284; theory
of, 428; the descendant of the
Fleet in Being School, 432 ; the
syllogism of, 485.
Bonaparte. See Napoleon.
Boom-protected Anchorage, 157,
424.
Bosnia, annexation of, by Austria,
9, 18, 122, 806.
Boston, 144, 170.
Bourbon, House of. See Yblmsic^*
Breisach and Philipsburg, com-
pared to Badajoz and Ciudad
Rodrigo, 64.
Byng, Admiral, 179.
Cadiz, threatening position of,
88; taken as a base by the Eng-
lish in the war of 1689-1697,
93-95.
Canada, United States could not
allow interference with, 88.
Caribbean Sea, interest of United
States in, up to 1887, 100, 101,
868-370, 872-377; reproduces
the central position of the Medi-
terranean, 102; interest of the
United States in, to-day. 111,
370, 377; Cuba case of ad-
vanced position in, 127-131,
253, 254; Panama Canal will
change strategic value of ports
of, 139, 160i 198, 208; how cer-
tain changes in, would affect
strategic value of Martinique
and other places, 140; advanced
base against Windward Islands
452
INDEX
in, 268, 264; the C8Bal« the era-
cijkl strategic feature of, 264 ;
neamees of, gives speoial value
to well-placed aoqmremeiits of
United States there, 280; a
highway of trade, 808; points
of oonvergenoe of trade routes
through, 808, 804; precarious-
ness of politioal developments
in the region of, 800; bound-
aries of, 808 ; with the Gulf of
Mexico, resembles the Mediter-
ranean, 808 ; entrances of, their
respective values, 808-810;
points of strat^c importance
in and near, 812-814 ; Ameri*
can base advanced in, if desired,
by war with Spain, 814; discus-
sion with regard to positions in
and near, 81&-847; the objects
to be controlled in, 847, 848 ;
Cuba controls entrances of, 848 ;
lines of communication o( as
controlled by Cuba, Jamaica,
and Lesser Antilles, 861-867;
the comparative values of Guan-
tanamo and Key West, 877-881 ;
the strategic key to the Atlantic
and Pacific is in, 382.
Caroline Islands, 123.
Cartagena, in Colombia, impor-
tant point, 349, 351.
Catoche, Cape, 310-312.
Central Line or Position, value
of, illastrated by the 1796 cam-
paign, 23-25, 57, 58, 61 ; value
of, illastrated by the Thirty
Years' War and the Austrian
conflict, 27-34, 61; defined, 31,
85, 36 ; held by France at time
of Richelieu, 43 ; at sea, 50, 99;
of Straits of Florida, 51, 52 ; of
Straits of Magellan or Panama
Canal, 53, 54 ; value of, lies in
the use made of it, 53; plus
power, 53, 54 ; will enable con-
testant to {HPevent Jmiclkm of
forces, 55; a factor oontribatoiy
to advantage, 60, 60.
Cervera, Admiral, if his 8qiuidioi&
had been efficient, it could have
got into Cienfuegos, 80, 278|
270 ; why he went to Santiago,
167, 168 ; effect upon, if Admiral
Sampson had been at Windward
Passage, 841.
Chadwidc, Admiral, 888.
Champlain, Jjake, effect of AmeA.
can squadron on, in 1776, 06.
ChanceUorsville, movement of
Jackson at, 85.
Chances, the stu^ of, necesaair,
177, 178.
Charles, Archduke, on the stretch
of the Danube from Ulm toBat-
isben as the controlling mUitvy
feature of Southern Germany,
22; his successful movements
against Jourdan and Moceaa
in 1706^ 28-25, 67, 68; his study
of strategy based upon the
Danube ngion, 24, 25; unoer^
tainties in the position of, 67,
58; quoted on the possession
of strategic points, 127 ; quoted
on strategic points in open and
in broken country, 138; on hav-
ing two fortresses, 170 ; on forti-
fying the base of operations,
281 ; on the value of experience
and historical illustration in
warfare, 297, 301 ; Kuropatkin
in position of, 448.
Charleston, 170; the fall of, 14, 15.
Chesapeake Bay, proposition for
artificial island at entrance of,
152; indicated by nature as a
primary base of supplies, 169,
170.
Chiriqui Lagoon, 140, 312, 849,
351.
Cienfuegos, Cervera's fleet could
INDEX
453
have reached, 30, 278, 279; why
Cervera did not head for, 167,
168 ; and Havana, Santiago, Sa-
mana Bay, as strategic points,
322, 335-338.
Ciudad Bodrigo, 64, 244>246.
Clarke, Sir George, his Fleet in
Being statement, 430.
Clausewits, Karl von, 120, note;
279.
Clayton-Bnlwer Treaty, 101, 102,
868, 370.
Coal, the question of, 118, 119,
381; in Rozhestvensky's fleet,
119, 228, 411, 412, 417-420.
Coast, defense and attack, 49 ; of
United States, line of, 61>53;
defense, the part of the army
chiefly, 141, 143; defense and
operations, should be by com-
bined military and naval con-
sultation, 143 ; fortresses, are in
greater danger of capture by
land attacks than by sea at-
tacks, 144; defense, by tor-
pedo-vessels and mines, 147,
148; fortresses, important part
played by, 148, 149; result, if
defense of, is assigned to navy,
150-152; offensive strength of,
153-163 ; neutral, may be made
part of line of approach to bel-
ligerent port, 166; with two or
more bases, defense of, 320,
321. See Advanced Front,
Babes, Lines, Ports, Strate-
gic Lines, Strategic Points.
Coast-defense Ships, 146, 147.
Coast Fortifications, relations of,
to naval strategy, illustrated by
Russo-Japanese War, 432; a
mental border line between con-
ceptions of naval and military,
432; method of, is defensive,
but function is offensive, 433-
435 r support the fleet, 433-435 ;
should be developed on land side
as well as on sea side, 435 ; ships
at a disadvantage contending
against, 435 ; are needed, grant-
ing even a supreme navy, 436;
should have regard to the num-
ber of available ports on the
coast, 436, 437; should be con-
stituted on Atlantic and Pacific
coasts of United States, 438;
troops unfit to meet regulars in
the field can hold, 438. See
Fortresses, Ports.
Coast-lines, 165, 166, 173.
Codrington, Sir Edward, 223.
Colomb, Admiral, his "Naval
Warfare," 12; Fleet in Be-
ing theory derived from, 428-
430.
Colombia, 368.
Colon, 140, 304, 349.
Colonial Possessions, desire of
Germany for, 106, 109; move-
ment toward obtaining, in
Europe, 108; the navy the pro-
tection of, 176, 177, 190, 191 ;
not so easy to hold as home
points, 178-180 ; of France, 181 ;
of Great Britain, a source of
danger, 181; of Great Britain,
Lord Kitchener on the necessity
of a navy to protect, 182; of
Great Britain, fell at time of
War of American Independ-
ence, 188, 189 ; principles which
should govern the selection and
preparation of positions in,
191-195; of Great Bntian,
throws Empire on defensive,
357.
Column, fighting order of navies,
47.
Combination, meaning of, 389-
391.
Commerce, relations of navy to,
445-447.
464
INDEX
CoBiDfliQiil BontoSf tho oonint
Hog of, 68.
CoimnniilflitiCTiij tsIiia oI^ illiit*
tratod I7 the Thirij Tears' War
and the Anetoiaii eooflid^ 27-
84« 61; defined, 82, 88^ 66, 86;
of tbe Rnariant near Plevna in
1877, 86-88; open and aale, ex-
ample ^ 87; menaee to^ by
ToalonaiidFlefna,88; between
Spain and Genoft torn 1680
to 1660, importanee o( 40; tiie
moet eontrc^ng leatere in land
etralegy, 118; how afeeam has
alleoled the element o^ 118^
118; importance ^ as elrat^gie
linee, 166^ 167; line of, nraally
leproeente line of retreat, 167;
two baeee iadUtate, 168-171;
enoh baeea ehonld be in eonip
mnnication, to insare, 171;
in Rneeo^apanefle War, 188;
dominate war, 265. iS>«vBAeBe,
Stbatsoio P01KT8, Lnrie.
Compromise and Adjustment
8€e AiaVWrMMMT AMD COM-
PBOMISE.
ConoentratioD, sammarizes mili-
tary efficiency in war, 6, 6, 80;
applied to United States fleet,
a, 11, 39, 40, 68, 75, 94, 115,
116, 222; incidents bearing on
the value of^ 7, 8, 11 ; value for,
of a reserve, 8; value of, illus-
trated by the campaign of 1796,
23-25, 57, 58, 61 ; value of, illus-
trated by the Thirty Years' War
and the Austrian conflict, 27-34,
61 ; failure of Richelieu to prac-
tise, 43, 44; weakness of alli-
ances due to inferior power of,
43; the first question in mili^
tary schemes should refer to,
43 ; Nelson's advice concerning,
43, 44; necessary in ship de-
sign, 44; necessary in tactics,
46; pndominaiiee ei( la qporifie
method of bedding eneivf in
ebeek in all parts but om^ dH;
a factor oontribntiiig to adrnn-
tageb 60, 60; iDasteifted by tbe
Doldi-BBglUi Wara662-1664X
67-74; mnat be beld and mp-
pUed in the qrfrit, not in the
letter onfy, 74^ 76; gained bj
England tinoogh theemafalngof
HoUaad,inl664^77; Ohwtnited
by eoorse of eventi fiom the
end of the Dnldi War to the
death of Cromwell, 78-82; prae-
ent leoc^tlon of neuemilj tor,
124; of British ieel^ 126, 128;
of United Statsa ieel^ 186; ttie
neeeerity for, depends en mo-
biUty of naviee, 126^ 126; ee-
aential to Tigoiooe ezeentioo,
171; ports of a coast fine ahoold
be in seonre commnnieation, in
order to allow o^ 171; of a
dispersed fleet after battie, 178,
174; of Groat Britein's fleet,
188; of snppliee on a siogle line
of oommnnieation, inexpedient,
212; of fighting ships in mari-
time expedition, 221.
Consolidation, internal, the effect
of, on external action, 88-86.
Control, of the sea, often unde-
cided, 265-261; of Windward
Passage, 326-830 ; of Caribbean
Sea and Gulf of Mexico, 832-
834, 340-381 ; points for, in tbe
Caribbean, 347-356; depends
on two things, position and ao-
tive military strength, 356.
Convoy System, not extended by
England to the Mediterranean
before Cromwell, 67; involves
a new strategic idea, 68; con-
ditions necessary to, 68.
Convoys, 208, 209; supplies of
fleet may be sent by, 211 ; ques-
INDEX
455
tion whether they should aoeom-
pany fleets or oome after control
of sea is decided, disputed, 215-
218.
Copenhagen, battle of, 286.
Corbett, Julian, his '* Seven Years'
War,'* 10; historical works of ,
** England in the Mediterra-
nean " and ** England in the
Seven Tears' War," 13; how
he approached his subject, 16;
cited, 16, 19, 42, 68, 80, 92, 118,
248 note, 271 ; his << England in
the Mediterranean,*' 26, 86, 87 ;
contravenes Napoleon's criticism
of Comwallis, 116-118; on de-
fense, 277-279.
Cordon System, 151, 388.
Comwallis, his division of his
fleet, 116-118.
Coromandel Coast> the, 261, 262,
272.
Corsica, at one time occupied by
England, 68, 258.
Coup d*aU, 9, 14, 21.
Creasy, Sir Edward, his '* Fifteen
Decisive Battles of the World,"
222.
Crippled ships, 266, 267.
Cromwell, Oliver, the external
policy of, influenced by reli-
gious motive, 28; reorganiza-
tion of the English navy under,
64, 65; his policy and motives
before and in the Dutch War,
65, 66; crushed the Dutch in
order to gain concentration, 77;
his policy after the Dutch War,
77-82; dependence of his navy
upon his army, 113.
Cuba, and Cervera, 39, 167, 168,
278, 279, 341; flanked our na-
tional communications, 52; our
interest in, 101; occupies ad-
vanced position, 127-131 ; south-
ern coast of, example of strategic
line, 168; object of United States
in invading, 180; supposition of
our holding, in war, 253, 254;
and the Windward Islands, 263,
264; United States in tenure of
Guantanamo, 314, 315; strategic
points in, 322, 335-338 ; the con-
trolling position of, and its ele-
ments of strength and weakness,
326-339; its strategic relations
to other parts of the Caribbean
Sea and the Gulf of Mexico,.
340-346; analysis of the in-
fluence of, 346; the key to the
Gulf of Mexico, 347; controls
entrance to Caribbean Sea, 348 ;
compared with Jamaica and
Eastern Antilles, 348-367, 376,
377; influence of, upon the con-
trol of the United States in the
Caribbean in 1887 and in 1911,
376-381.
Culebra, importance of, 314, 315,
318, 322, 332, 343, 377, 380.
Cura9ao, important point, 349, 351.
Cyprus, acquisition of, by England,
68, 87, 122.
Dakubb, the, its importance as a
military feature, 22, 23, 33, 34,
254; in the compaign of Arch-
duke Charles against Jourdan
and Morean in 1796, 23, 24, 325.
Darrieus, Captain, on naval strat-
egy, 13, 15-17; on the bond
between foreign policy and
strategy, 20; on the constitu-
tion of tiie fleet, 107.
Daveluy, Commander, on naval
strategy, 13, 15-17; quoted on
national consolidation, 83, 84;
his expression, ** displacement of
force," 236, 295.
Defeat, lessons to be drawn from,
383 ; has to justify itself, 384.
466
INDEX
Defense, delay the great gain of,
95, 142 ; of ports and coast, be-
longs chiefly to anny, 141, 143 ;
navy contributes to, by ofEen-
sivehdefensiye action, 142, 148,
152, 153, 298 ; of naval stations,
should be made by land as weU
as by sea, 144, 145; of com-
merdal ports, should be on sea
front oidy, 144, 146; of sea-
ports, should not be entrusted
to navy alone, 145; harbor, 147 ;
naval, must be founded ou forti-
fied strategic harbors, 149, 150,
289; navy should not be dis-
seminated in, 150-152; home,
part played by navy in, 244,
248, 249 ; a strong form of war,
277, 285; in what sense it is
true that it is a stronger form of
war than offense, 277, 279, 288,
289; the Japanese position at
Tsushima and that of the United
States before Cervera's arrival,
essentially one of, 278; radical
disadvantage of, 279; the ad-
vantages of, 279; elements neces-
sary to, 280 ; of maritime region
over which control has been ac-
quired, 280, 281; strong places
play their most important part
in, 281, 282, 284; first object
of, is to gain time, 284 ; opposi-
tion should begin as far as pos-
sible in front of vital points of,
284, 285 ; tendency of, is to dis-
semination, 286; retreat of fieet
on first line of, 290, 291 ; the
object of the, 294 ; of coast hav-
ing two or more bases, 320, 321 ;
of frontier, two systems in, 388,
389; represented in Fortress
Fleet idea, 393.
Defensive Strength, of sea-ports, a
condition of strategic value, 132 ;
against attacks by sea and land,
analyzed and disenssed, 141-
158; interposes passive iedat>
ance, 148, 149.
Delay, the great gain of defense,
95, 142.
Dilke, Sir Charles, on Russia and
British trade, 807.
Dbplaoement of Force, 286, 295.
Distance, of over-sea possossiona,
disoossed as a factor in naval
strategy, 175-189.
Distant Operations. Ste Mari-
TIMK EXFBDITIONS.
Distribution, of navy, in peace,
should oonf orm to needs in war,
894.
Diversions, 217, 218, 220, 285.
Docking FaoUities, 158, 154, 196.
Dock-yards. 8€e Dry Docks,
Nayt-tards.
Dreadnoughts, 7, 8^ 82 note.
Dry Docks, 161-188.
Dual Alliance, the, 104.
Dunkhrk, England obtahis, 80, 81 ;
surrendered to Franoe, 88.
Dutch. See Hoixand.
Egypt, Napoleon's course to, 88 ;
an important maritime position,
87, 184, 185, 254; occupation of,
by England, 122; Napoleon's
expedition to, 183-187, 230-240;
British uneasy as to communi-
cations with, 201, 202; could
have offered more resistance to
Napoleon had Alexandria been
British and adequately garri-
soned, 436.
Elba, battle ofiE, 70; secured by
Mazarin, 77.
ElUott Islands, 8, 156, 158, 424,
425, 427.
Endurance, a principal element of
defensive strength, 142.
England. See Great Britain.
INDEX
457
English Navigation Act, 67.
Eugene, Prince, 86, 89, 98.
Europe, politics of, of interest to
United States, 103 ; rivalries in,
and external activities of, 104,
108, 109 ; the base of operations
for actions in other continents,
111, 112.
Expeditions. See Maritime Ex-
peditions.
Experience, value of, 9, 10, 297,
298 ; lies at the basis of science,
and of naval strategy, 297.
Farragut, Admiral, his van
thrown into confusion at Mo-
bile, 49; risk assumed by, in
passing Mississippi forts, 282.
Flank, attack on, preferred, 40-49.
Flanking Movement, 84.
Flanking Positions, 209, 210, 228.
Fleet in Being, 284; power and
limitations of, illustrated, 229;
assumes that war can be made
without risk, 232 ; illustrated by
Bonaparte in Egypt, 233, 234;
seeming confirmation of the
theory, 267; not well founded,
268; influence in Russian prac-
tice, 384, 892, 398, 416; exag-
gerates power of fleets and un-
duly disparages coast defense,
885, 428; contrasted with << For-
tress Fleet " idea, and discussed,
385^03, 427-439 ; stands for of-
fensive idea, 393; if inferior,
should not be accepted as deter-
rent, 399, 400 ; action of Japan-
ese in face of, 399, 400 ; dangers
from, 401 , 402 ; influence of idea
on Rozhestvensky, 416; Japan-
ese proved exaggeration of idea,
428; tends to paralyze action,
429.
Florida, 816, 817, 824, 437.
Florida, Straits of, importance of»
from a military standpoint, 51,
52, 317, 318 ; military character-
istics of, 310.
Fort de France, 364.
Fortifications, Coast. See Coast
Fortifications, Fortresses.
Fortify, the word defined, 132.
Fortress Fleet, is distinctly Rus-
sian, 335, 385; lays stress on
forts and subordinates fieet, 385 ;
illustrated in Russian conduct
in Japanese War, 391-397, 403,
416, 441 ; idea of, defensive, 392,
398.
Fortresses, the occasion for, 87,
99; coast, are in greater dan-
ger of capture by laud attacks
than by sea attacks, 144 ; works
and garrison of, must be ade-
quate to all probable exigencies,
194 ; play their most important
part in the defense, 281-289;
strength of, represents men, 282 ;
of importance in control of mar-
itime region external to the
country, 283; the value and the
limitations of, 287 ; necessary in
sea warfare as well as land, 289 ;
are essentially offensive in func-
tion, 293 ; in land warfare must
be secured on all sides, 434. See
Coast Fortifications, De-
fense, Ports, Strategic
Points.
France, in the campaign of 1796,
23-25; and Austria, struggle
between, at time of Thirty Years'
War, 27-31, 34, 62, 63; distri-
bution of her navy by Richelieu,
40; enters the Thirty Years'
War, 40, 41 ; held interior posi-
tion and central lines at time of
Richelieu, 43 ; takes Alsace, 63 ;
after the Dutch War, 1654, to
the death of Cromwell, 78-82;
458
INDEX
froml658toie88»88; her great
advaaoe from 1628 to 1688» 84-
86; iu the war of 1680^1697,88-
. 96; in the War of the Spanish
SoooeBaion, 96-98; her positioD
in modem Eiutqpean politioB,
lOi, 108; her naval poirition at
Biaerte, Tonia, 128; her ool-
oniee, 181; her nayy, 871; her
West India Uands aa naval
hasee^ldO.
Frontier, land and ooean, 49, 60;
offenaive ahonld be confined to
one pact of, 51 ; of United Slatee,
6hM\ defense oi^ two q^stema
in, 888^ 889.
GxNSRALa AT Ska, Wider Crom-
well, 118.
Genoa, in the Thirty Tears' War
and after, 28-81, 84, 40-42; its
part in 1800 compaied to that of
Port Arthur, 444, 446.
German Soathwest Afrioa, 180.
Germany, and Great Britsln, rela-
tive strength of, in ships, 7, 8 ;
increase of her navy aided by
defeat of Rossia in Japanese
War, 9, 104, 369-^1 ; wiU have
a navy superior to that of United
States, 18, 371 ; political relations
of, to other nations, should be
considered in case of war, 18,
19; the Danube as a military
feature in, 22, 28; method and
foresight in her naval develop-
ment, 32 note; in the Thirty
Tears' War, 62, 63; loses Alsace,
63; and England, relative posi-
tions of, to-day, 73, 82, 83, 108-
110, 125, 206; increase of her
naval expenditure, 84, 104 ; in
the War of the Spanish Succes-
sion, 96-98; commercial devel-
opment of, 104, 108, 371 ; naval
ptogramme of, 104, 109, 260,
871; her position in Enrope in
.1897 and ahioe, 104; possibili-
ties of her great fleet and her
eol<mial ambitions, 106^ 106; aa
to the Monroe Dootrine, 106^ 107;
the drawing together o( w^th
Austria, 108; hiw formally ^a-
avowed oolonising ambitiona,
109; has efEsetive government,
109; with Anstria, mi|^t deal
with Bns^and and United States
aeparately, 109; oan be eon-
trolled by British navy alone in
Europe, 109, 110; national lile
o(iawikzing,110; no longer iiH
difference to navy in, 111; her
possession of Kiao<}ban, 188;
her parehase of Candine Islanda,
128; eonoentration of British
fleet due to, 128; and AnsM^
have common interest in sup-
porting one another, 184; ohange
in British policy due to growtii
of navy of, 871; fleet of, superior
to every oUier, eioept the British,
872.
Gibraltar, threatening position of,
38 ; acquisition of, by England,
68, 96, 97 ; Blake at, 78-80 ; an
important base, 87, 132, 162;
did not fall in American War
of Independence, 100, 203; three
years' siege of (1779-1782), 198,
204; and Nelson, 1803-1806,
200; a necessary first step to
Egypt, 202; survived through
natural and acquired defensive
power, 436.
Groldsborough, Admiral, anecdote
told by, 120.
Grant, General U. S., 177.
Great Britain, and the Monroe
Doctrine, 19, 106, 107, 370; in
the Mediterranean, 26, 27, 67-
71 ; in the Thirty Tears' War,
INDEX
469
42; the Two-Power standard
needed by, 55; reorganization
of her navy under CromweU,
64, 65; acts leading up to the
war of, with Holland, 66, 67;
seizes Gibraltar, 68, 06, 97 ; war
between Holland and, 67-74;
her problem in the Dutch War
reproduced to-day, 69 ; after the
Dutch War to the death of Crom-
well, 77-63 ; seizure of Jamaica
by, 80; obtains Dunkirk and
Mardyke, 80, 81 ; Cyprus ceded
to, 68, 122 ; and Germany, rela-
tive positions of, to-day, 73, 82,
83, 10&-110, 125, 206; ineffeo-
tive foreign policy of, in 1658-
1688, due to internal dissensions,
83 ; in the war of 1689-1697,
88-96; in the War of the Span-
ish Succession, 96-98 ; seizes
Minorca in 1708, 98; her position
in Europe in 1897 and after, 104 ;
her position in case of war be-
tween United States and Japan,
105; her recent treaty with
Japan, 105 note ; at present holds
Germany in check, 105; her
navy alone can control Germany
in Europe, 109, 110; her navy
may probably decline in relative
strength, 110; Egypt occupied
by, 122 ; shifting of home bases
of, 125, 206 ; itself an advanced
position, 129; strategic position
of, causes her to be a menace in
German eyes, 139 ; her maritime
possessions a source of danger,
181; Lord Kitchener on the
need of a navy to protect the
imperial interests of, 182; con-
centration of her fleet, 183 ;
Austria's interest to see her out
of the Mediterranean, 184 ; fail-
ure of, to keep colonies in Ameri-
can War of Independence, 188, |
189; development of her sys-
tem of maritime bases, 193, 194 ;
inadeqipitely garrisoned, 283 ;
and the United States, peace be-
tween, seems assured, 332 ; colo-
nial system of, throws Empire
on defensive, 857; and the Isth-
mian Canal, 370; cause of
change in policy of, 371.
Grey, Sir Edward, 107 note.
Ground, part played by conditions
of, in land warfare, 45, 46.
Guadeloupe, 130, 263, 360, 364.
Guantanamo, superior to Key West
as regards influence over Canal
Zone, 128; United States in ten-
ure of, 314, 870; and Culebra,
exceed any combination of Gulf
ports, 315; and Culebra, com-
pared to Gibraltar and Malta,
815; and Culebra, would cover
Key West, 818 ; effect of acqui-
sition of, by United States,
upon Mugeres Island and Cule-
bra, 322; supersedes Santiago
de Cuba, 326; and Santiago, a
check upon Kingston, 327 ; and
Key West, Puerto Rico, Culebra,
a formidable line of control, 332 ;
a strategic point of first impor-
tance, 333 ; its nearness to Isth-
mus, 357 ; advantages of, com-
pared witii those of Key West
and Gulf ports, 376-381.
Guantanamo Bay, 38, 180, 338.
Gunboats, 151.
Haiti, 822-330, 340, 346, 358, 360.
Hannibal, the loss of the sea was
his ruin, 59.
Harbin, Russian officers expected
to make a stand at, 443.
Harbor Defense, 147.
Havana, 322, 328-334, 338, 339,
342-844, 858-361, 377.
460
INDEX
lalaads, acquired in
peace, 128 ; value as a strategic
point) 188 ; ultimate, retention
of, Will depend on fleeti 214;
serve as advanced base to San
Francisco and Paget Sound,
820; should be consideied in
plans for defense of Pacific
Coast, 488.
Hawke, Admiral, 157, 160.
Hay-Ptoncefote Treaty, 102, 106,
870.
Heligoland, 88<^ 887.
Hermocrates, hk speech, 226, 227;
features of his plan, 228, 229.
Heraegoyina, annexatioa o^ by
Austria^ 9, 18, 122, 806.
Highway, defined, 185; strategic
points generally lie near, 189.
Historical Illustration, the value
of, 9-12, 16, 17, 25, 297, 298 ;
ahowing the importance of con-
centration, of a central line, of
interior lines, and of communi-
cations, 26, 116, 116.
Hoche, Lacare,.217.
Hohenlinden, battle of, 24.
Holland, in the Thirty Tears'
War, 29, 30, 44, 62, 68 ; rivalry
of, with England at time of
Cromwell, 65; acts leading np
to the war of England with, 66,
67; war between England and,
67-74 ; in the war of 1689-1697,
88-96.
Home Defense, part played by
navy in, 244, 248, 249, 293-296.
Honduras, 350.
Hotham, Admiral, 268.
Illubtratiok. See Historical
Illustration.
Impedimenta, mobility of naval
and military, contrasted, 126.
Imperial Federation, 179, 180.
India, 188, 185.
Interior lines, valna of, illustrated
by the campaign of 1796, 28-26^
57, 58, 61; value of, illnsfarmted
by the Thirty Teanf* War and
the Austrian confiiet, 27-84, 61;
defined, 81, 82, 86, 86; valna <^
illustrated by Plevna, 86-M;
Toulon and Fdrt Arthur, 87,88;
held by France at time of
Richelien, 48; enable bellig-
erent to get there sooner, bat
do nothbg more, 65; a faelor
contributing to advantage, 60,
60.
Internal Navigation, 172.
International Ccmditions, the iqp-
inedation of, in military jdaaa,
18-21, 867, 868, 876, 896, 896;
as affecting the United States,
108-107; in 1887 and at pnaent
time, compared, 868-872.
Invasions, Maritime, general qiiea>
tion discussed, 208-240; of two
kinds, 217; examples o^ Atho-
nians against l^jrracuse, 222;
Bonaparte against Egypt, 280.
Ireland, expedition to, under
Hoche, 218, 220, 221.
Islands, small and large, strategic
value of, 133.
Italy, northern, in the war of
1689-1697, 88-96; northern, in
the War of the Spanish Suc-
cession, 96-98; her position in
European politics, 104.
Jackson, Stonewall, his move-
ment at Chancellorsville, 85.
Jamaica, threatening position of,
38 ; seizure of, by the English,
80 ; cannot be avoided by ships
bound to Isthmus, 140; saved
by Rodney's victory, 190; has
the most controlling situation
INDEX
461
in the Caribbean, 194, 816; if
Great Britain were confined in
West Indies to, commnnications
would be insecure, 201 ; guards
two defiles, 310 ; of not so much
consequence to Great Britian as
Key West to United States,
317, 318; Santiago and Guau-
tanamo lie over against, 827;
the Havana of the Windward
Channel is in, 329 ; military and
oommerical objective within the
Caribbean, 349-351; her control
of lines of communication in
the Caribbean, 851-356; com-
pared with Cuba and Lesser
Antilles, 356-367; illustrates
value of fortified fort, 362, 363 ;
appreciation of value of, illus-
trates interest of United States
in European politics, 863; the
key to the Caribbean, 866;
flanks all lines of communi-
cation to Isthmus of Panama,
380.
Japan, anxieties of, in Russian
War, 55-57, 422, 426; Great
Britain's position in case of war
between United States and, 105 ;
her treaty with Great Britain,
105 note; her system of state
control, 110; her dock-yards,
161; in case she should defeat
United States navy, 180; in Man-
churia, 305-307; and Russia, dis-
cussion of the war between, 883-
431 ; action of, in face of Fleet
in Being, 399, 400, 428, 429;
her naval strategy in Russian
War highly praiseworthy, 421.
Japan Sea, battle of, the method
of attack in, 49; dispersal of
Russian ships after, 173 ; criti-
cism of Rozhestvensky's prepa-
rations for, 409-421.
Jomini, his dictum that changes in
weapons affect practice, but not
principles, 4; his " Art of War,"
17 ; translated and edited Arch-
duke Charles's study of strategy,
24; his "Wars of the French
Revolution," 46; aphorism of,
51; «ited, 107, 127, 241, 255,
267, 299 ; quoted, 130, 149, 282,
300, 894, 402.
Jourdan, Marshal, 24, 25, 57, 58.
Kamimura, 52, 75, 407, 408, 426,
427.
Eempenfelt, Admiral, 880.
Kentish Knock, battle of, 71.
Key, the, of a situation, 120, 218,
347 ; should be the ultimate ob-
jective in all operations, 205.
Key West, and Guantanamo, as
regards the Gulf coast and the
Canal Zone, 128, 378-381 ; com-
pared to Pensacola, 133; two
available routes to, 165; its
position, strategically, 313-320,
829-332; its value in 1887 dis-
cussed, 872-377; development
of, since 1887, 377-380; com-
pared to Masampo, as to situa-
tion, 437.
Kiao-Chau, 123, 177, 180, 427.
Kiel Canal, an interior line, 32;
enlargement of, 32 note; im-
mense strategic significance of,
324.
Kingston, Jamaica, 313, 327, 829,
358.
Kitchener, Lord, on the necessity
of a navy for Great Britain,
182.
Korea, its strategical influence,
52; compared to Florida, 52,
437; customs duties in, under
Japanese annexation, 306, 307.
Korea, Straits of, 404, 409, 419,
426, 427.
462
INDEX
Knn, 201. 8&e ma^ p. ^6L
Kiuopatkfaiy hifl plui of rfltoeat
ooneet^ 448, 444^
LAmrsMiTHy 06, 192.
La Hongoe, bftttle o( 90. •
Lakes, the Ameriean Graal, ood-
tiol of, in 1812-1814, 29; effect
of American aqoadnm on Lake
Champlain in 1776, 05.
Land Strategy, commnnieatbns
the moet eontrdling featnre ol^
118 ; how it diSsn from nayal
•tiategy, 121, 122, 128, 188, 188,
189, 140.
Land Taoties, eonoentraAkm neo-
essaiy in, 45; determining effect
of oonditions of groond upon,
45; flank attacks preferred, 48.
Lanfi^, on Napoleon, 421.
Launching a naral force from a
naval bsse, 158, 155-169.
Leghorn, 88, 70, 71; Nelson aft, 481.
Lerins Islands, 42.
Lesser Antillee, Jamaica, and
Cnba, as strategic points, com-
pared, 856-867.
Liao-Tung Peninsula, lookout
maintained from, upon mine
fields, by Japanese, 425; Rus-
sian officers did not expect to
hold, 443.
Liao-Yang, 37, 188, 443.
Line, the fighting order of navies,
47--49 ; more properly styled
column from formation of ves-
sels, 47 ; attack on van and rear
of column are really fiank at-
tacks, 47.
Lines, roundabout, part played by,
in naval strategy, 38; followed
on the sea, 136-140; of opera-
tion, retreat, communications,
etc., 164 ; crossing the open sea
or following the coast-line, 165,
188 ; c( appnadb, naibal
may he made a part o^ 168; of
letfeat^ generall^iepiysmitj J by
tiboee of ccmimaiiieatioo, 187;
of operalioiie» the choice of, in
BMlitlme eiqpeditiom, 90T, 989—
211; of defeoie, 298; of eom-
manication, between entfaaeee
of Gaxibbean Sea and ohjeelifea,
the control d, 851-868. See
ASfWAMOMD FmHT, AdTAWCBD
PoeiTioH, BAasa, Posys,
fiTBJLTSaiC LtMMB, BftmAXmBW
Ponrre.
Lobg Ishmd, defensive and effm-
Bive aspect of, 171, 179, 890^ 881;
Soond aif 821.
Loois XIV., Btnart tings loefeered
the power of , 82, ^ 85^ 88;
war of 1688-1887, 88-88; war
of 1702-1718, 88-8a
Lonisbnig, why necessary to be
fortified by France, 184.
Lnce, Adndral, foondatSon of
Naval War College due lo^ 1,
14; qootadon tern pi^»r on
Naval Strategy, 10; qooted on ^
the taking of Charleston, 14, 15.
Macaulat, T. B., on IVllliam
III. as a general, 93.
Magellan, Straits of, central posi-
tion of, 53.
Mahan, Captain A. T., foundation
and course of his military
studies, 17.
Major Operations, of nearby inva-
sions, 217 ; across sea, 218.
Malta, 200-202; threatening posi.
tion of, 38; acquisition of, by
England, 68; an important base,
87 ; strategic value of, 132 ; cap-
tured by Bonaparte, 179, 185,
232, 236, 237; quotation from
Nelson on, 185 ; lesson to United
INDEX
468
States from French capture of,
846 ; would have detained Bona-
parte longer had it been ade.
quately defended, 486.
Manchuria, political conditions in,
their cause, 805-807; Lower
Russian officers did not expect
to hold, 448.
Mantua, strategic value of, 95, 187,
261, 285.
Mardyke, England obtains, 80, 81 ;
surrendered to FrancOi 83.
Marengo, 95, 884.
Maritime Expeditions, distant,
more feasible, but less dedsiTey
than successes won near home,
189, 190; what is necessary to
their success, 190; attacks direct
and indirect, 208; two condi-
tions for success in, secure fron-
tiers and efficient navy, 204 ; the
question of, a particular case of
general military operations, 204 ;
security in, depends on navy,
205; determining of plan for, in-
volves choice of base, of objeo-
tive, and of line of operations,
205; the choice of an objective
in, 205 ; the choice of a base in,
205-207; the choice of a line of
operations in, 207, 209-211;
have been and may be again,
208, 209 ; members of, keep to-
gether as much as possible, 220,
221; Sicilian Expedition as an
example of, 222-280; Bona-
parte's Egyptian expedition as
an example of, 230-240.
Marlborough, Duke of, 97, 98, 113.
Marmont, Marshal, in Spain, 244-
246, 248, 273.
Martinique, 180, 140, 268, 360, 864.
Masampo, compared to Key West,
437.
Maxims of War, estimate of value
of, 800.
Mazarin, Cardinal, 62, 77, 81, 85.
Mediterranean, the, England in,
26, 27, 67-71, 193; a military
position of great importance, 87,
89; fixed naval bases obtained
by England in, through the
Peace of Utrecht, 98; naval
campaign in, from 1793 to 1798,
256-261.
Messina, as a base, 94.
Mexico, 811, 312.
Mexico, Gulf of, position of United
States in, in 1887 and now, 100,
101, 372-382; a highway of
trade, 803; boundaries of, and
of Caribbean, 808; with the
Caribbean, resembles the Med-
iterranean, 808; the coastline
of, of small strategic conse-
quence, 311; and the Carib-
bean, detailed consideration of
strategic features of, 312-367.
Milan, in the Thirty Years' War,
28-30,34.
Mine Fields, strategic and tactical
value of, 145, 146, 156, 157, 425.
Minorca, at times occupied by
England, 68 ; an important base,
87 ; seized by England in 1708,
98; strategic value of, 132;
taken from Great Britain in
1756, 179; taken during the
War of American Independence,
190.
Mississippi River, as a naval base,
128 ; mouth of, a point of conver-
gence for trade routes through
the Caribbean, 303, 304.
Mississippi Sound, 172.
Mobility, the quality of the navy,
126, 144, 152.
Mobilization, 126, 176.
Mona Passage, in the strategic
field of the Caribbean and the
Gulf of Mexico, 308, 311, 322,
826-330, 840-845, 858, 876, 877.
464
INDEX
Monitors, 151, 156.
Monk, General, 78, 74, 118.
Monroe Doctrine, maintenanoe of,
depends on fleets 18, ICMI; long
contention of United States with
Great Britain based on, 19, 105,
107 ; no scheme of strategy soond
that neglects, 20; pronoonce-
ment of, 100 ; Spanish War led
to triamph oi^ 108; obsenrance
of, at present, secured by bal-
ance of power in Enrope, 106,
110, 868; Great Britain agrees
with United States in, 107,
868, 870; has advanced sensi-
bly towards general acceptance,
according to President Taft,
110 ; Ghilf of Mexico and the
Caribbean of importance to,
111 ; Asiatic immigration linked
with, 107; focuses at Isthmus
of Ftoama, 108, 804; has in-
Tolved the control, administra-
tion, and military protection of
Canal Zone, 804; has prevented
foreign states from appropri-
ating territory in this hemi-
sphere, 305; in its beginnings
was partly commercial, partly
military, partly political, 447.
Moore, Sir John, 241, 268, 273.
Moreau, J. V., 24, 25, 57, 58.
Morocco, 104, 305.
Motor Power, of ships, 114-119;
certainty of, due to steam, has
modified naval strategy, 121,
381.
Mugeres Island, as a strategic
point, 321, 322.
Mukden, 443.
Napier, W. F. P., 240, 241, 268.
Naples, French attempts against,
in 1646-1654, 77-80 ; as a base,
04.
Napo]eon« his saying fihal anehi-
dveness of purpose is the aaorefc
of great successes, 6, 887; his
testimony to the value of ex-
perience and luatorioal iUuatn^
tion, 9, 10, 297, 298, 801; hta
sayhig that war is a business
of positions, 86, 127, 160, 191»
802, 819, 867; his course to
Egypt, 88, 186, 187; his/atiiset
routes, 88, 186; in Italy, l^ 187,
188; at Moscow, 68; eritidaed
Cwnwallis for dividing his fleeC^
116-118; at Marengo^ 167; on
the Art of War, 168» 212; hie
Egyptian ezpediftbn, 169, 181^
187, 221, 280-240; his 4^ehm
that war cannot be made witili-
out risks, 282, 480; order o^ to
Mass^na, 241; his letter of in-
structions to Biarshal Marmool^
244-246, 248, 278; his method
of diversion with British fleet
in 1804 and 1805, 246, 247; be-
fore Mantua in 1796, 251, 258,
267; saying of, at Ansteriiti^
289; on dogmaldcing, 299; con-
duct of, between the disaster of
Essling and the victory of Wag-
ram, 421; on the situation in
1797, 443.
Narragansett Bay, 170, 171, 319.
National Review, article on '*Navy
and Empire '* in, 54.
Naval Affairs, new feeling with
regard to, in recent years. 111;
new literature on, 112.
Naval Campaigns, have often been
directed by soldiers, 113.
Naval Stations, 87, 144; essential
military requirement of, 195;
policy of acquiring remote, 845.
See Fortresses, Ports.
Naval Strategy, 'lectures on, 1, 2,
17; development in practise and
theory of, 2 ; is developing, but
INDEX
466
principles are unchangeable,
2-5; what it is, 6; systematic
study of, began at Naval War
College, 5, 6 ; the value of con-
centration and a reserve in,
5-8, 12; illustrations of the
permanence of considerations
affecting, d-8; principle and
illustration in, 9-12, 16, 17,
818; increase of material for
study of, 12; signs of sounder
habits of thought upon, and of
increased interest in, 13, 14;
the bearing of the appreciation
of international considerations
on, 18-21, 102-111, 367, 368;
combined with military strat-
egy, example of, 26-34; rela-
tions of Great Britain, Japan,
and United States, a question
of, 105; how it differs from
kuid strategy, 121, 122, 126;
necessary in peace as in war,
121-129; large geog^phical
scale upon which it is carried
on, 124; fewer obstacles to,
than to land strategy, but these
more truly impassable, 135, 136,
139, 140 ; commercial value can-
not be separated from military
in, 302; value of the Russo-
Japanese War for treatment of,
383, 432.
Naval War College, lectures be-
fore, 1 ; study of naval strategy,
systematically, began at, 5, 6 ; its
foundation, 14 ; its object, 119.
Navies, have borne an active part,
in recent wars, 4; influence
of, in the war between Great
Britain and the Boer Repub-
lics, 4 ; former police duty of, 4,
5; fighting order of, a line,
47, 48; influence of, on land
campaigns, 86 ; constitution of,
depends upon national interests,
107 ; a new feeling with regard
to, in recent years, 111; the new
great. 111; indispensable to ex-
ertion of powers in distant
regions, 112; steam campaigns
by, 114, 115; changed disposi-
tion of, at present time, 124,
125; mobiUtyof, 126, 144, 152;
functions of, military and in-
ternational, 446.
Navy, of United States, proposed
division of, condemned, 6, 11,
39, 40, 52, 58, 75, 94, 116, 222;
of Germany, 9, 18, 32 note, 84,
104, 106, 109, 111, 250, 869-372;
French, Richelieu looked upon
as the real father of, 40 ; French,
Richelieu's distribution of, 40;
of United States, One-Power
standard minimum for, 54
(British navy excepted from this
estimate, 331 ; why, 332) ; Eng.
lish, reorganization of, under
Cromwell, 64, 65 ; became f uUy
differentiated from army under
William m. of England, 113;
of United States, concentration
of, 125; cooperation of, with
army in coast-defense, 142
143, 152, 153, 433 ; at disadvan
tage against forts, 144, 435
blockade and mines, 145, 146
coast-defense ships, 146, 147
torpedo-vessels, 147, 148 ; should
not be devoted to a passive
defense of harbors or fortifica-
tions, 149-153, 391-393; its part
in launching a force, 155-159,
173, 174 ; division of force may
occur, for reasons, 173, 174; es-
sential to the protection of over-
sea possessions, 176, 177, 181,
182, 190, 191; maintenance of
system of maritime fortified
stations depends upon, 198;
main object of, in war, the en-
466
INDEX
9mfB hetj, 190; in^ortanoe
of, in distant maritime expedi-
tiona, 204-200 ; aeearity in mari-
time ezpeditiotis depends upon,
206« 208; supplies o^ may be
sent f orwaid in two wajs, 211 ;
if operating at a distanee from
homei it shonld not d^end iq>on
a single line of snpplieSi 212;
mnst establish snpremaoy after
(if not before) seijdng objee-
tive, 218-^20, 248 ; and eonfoy,
whetiier tbej sbonld sail to-
gether, 216; unless it is supe-
rior, major (Operation across sea
should not be attempted, 218;
sustained concentration ol^ 221 ;
of Athens at time of Siciliaa
Expedition, 222-280; after the
objeotiye is reached, should take
ofEsnslTe-defsnriye part, 248^
248; relation of, to home de-
fttiM, 244, 248, 240; of what
rise it should be, definition by
Germany, 250; should not be
obliged to defend bases, 288^
284; should act offensively
when country is thrown on de-
fensive, as regards its shore
line, 293, 294 ; of United States,
should surpass that of any state
except Great Britain, 831, 832 ;
of United States in 1887 and
to-day, 369, 370 ; of France, 871 ;
of Russia in Russo-Japanese
War, see Russia, Rozhestven-
sky ; receives support from forts,
433-435; alone, of an extended
territorial Power, cannot pre-
vent invasion, 436 ; relations of
commerce to, 445-447; United
States needs a numerous and
efficient, 447.
Navy-yards, our northern, 160;
selections of sites for, 163;
essential militaiy requisite of,
to be Ussfol in war, 106^ 196;
should be at kast two on eadi
ooartfrtmtier, 106. 8m Ambb-
KALS.
Nelson, Lord, his <2lefiMi on Fvaaoa
doing Englaad nomone hMrmfor
the year, if it should ddaat
one of tlM EngUah diviaioiia, 7,
218,219,288,406; histsatimony
to thoT^Jne of eoKperieiioe, 9, 10 ;
on politioal eonra^B, 81 ; in pur-
suit of Napoleon to ^3^ SB,
186, 187, 210, 220, 287-240; his
adTioe conosfniag ooncentmlion,
48, 44; his plan at TniOgu,
47,48; hia vsasons for attack on
Tan or nar, 48, 40; hte eonrae
of action after letuniing ima
West Indiss in 1805^ 11^118;
on not mofing ooast^eleniM
ships, 147; quoted on Malta,
186; his conduct In Boniyarte's
diversion in 1804 and 1805, 218,
210, 246-248; his aaying that it
is not well enough to take ten
ships if yon can take defen,
268; after Copenhagen, 286;
his reason for fighting nineteen
ships with less than a dozen,
288 ; in a moment of uncertainty
as to whereabouts of French
fleet, 291 ; his saying that, in
case signals cannot be under-
stood, no captain can do wrong
if he places his ship alongside
that oh enemy, 406 ; on taking
risks, 431.
Netherlands, Spanish, 20. See
Belgium, Holland.
Neutral Coasts, 166.
New London, 319.
New Orleans, 314, 819, 820.
New York, a port with two out-
lets, 158; indicated by nature
as a primary base of supplies,
160, 170 ; in its scheme of prepa-
INDEX
467
ration for war, Narragansett Bay
could be inoludedy 170 ; and Nor-
folk, naval stationB, 272, 319.
Nicaragua, 350.
Nicholson, Sir W., his estimate of
the force needed to capture Port
Arthur, 444 note.
Nile, battle of the, 186, 233, 284,
238, 256, 257, 260.
Nipe, Bay of, 326, 327, 338.
Nordlingen, battle of, 34, 39, 41.
Norfolk, 272, 319.
Objkctivb, the choice of, in mar-
itime expeditions, 205 ; after (if
not before) seizing, fleet should
establish its supremacy, 213-
220, 243; the proper, the organ-
ized military force of the enemy,
250-255, 266, 267.
Objectives, in the Caribbean Sea,
34S-351, 356.
Obstacles, land f uU of, 135, 136 ;
causing useful strategic points,
139; off-lying, to navigation,
defensive in character, 174, 175.
Offensive, should be confined to
one part of frontier, 51 ; military
operations of the, in a maritime
region, discussed, 203-222, 250-
277; Fleet in Being represents
the, 393.
Offensive-Defensive Action, of
navy, 142, 143, 147, 243, 248,
249, 252; of seacoast works,
249, 433, 434.
Offensive Strength, a condition of
strategic value, 132 ; of a seaport,
wherein it consists, 153 ; assem-
bling, 154, 155; launching, 155-
159 ; the following up with sup-
port, 159-162 ; resources, 162,
163.
Office of Naval Intelligence, Ameri-
can, 412.
Ollivier, Lieutenant, quoted, 394.
One-Power Standard, 54, 331, 332.
Open Door, part of external policy
of United States, 110, 197 ; re-
quires naval power, 110 ; the
scene of, the Pacific, 110, 197 ;
uncertainty about, due to politi-
cal weakness of China and ag-
gressive policies of foreign states,
305; suggests national jealousies
and rivalries, 308.
Operations of War, 203-205, 243-
301.
<* Oregon,*' the, exposure o^ in
joining the American fleet in
1898, 39, 40.
Pacific Coast, 51, 52, 124, 319,
320, 382 ; existing conditions im-
pose necessity of naval stations
on, 197, 198, 438 ; compared with
the Atlantic coast as regards
available ports, 437.
Panama, Isthmus of, route by, an
illustration of an interior line,
32; the importance of, 101, 102,
348 ; the growing interest of the
United States in, in 1887, 368,
369; the Clayton-Bulwer and
Hay-Pauncefote treaties as af-
fecting, 370.
Ptoama Canal, the fleet the secur-
ity of the maintenance of, 18;
central position o^ 53; should
be fortified, 54 ; control of, im-
perative to naval action, 102;
will change strategic value of
many ports, 139 ; defense of, by
attack of enemy's base, 264, 265;
a bridge between two oceans,
but will require large force for
control, 324 ; relation of, to mu-
tual support of Atlantic and Pa-
cific coasts, 382; international
importance of, 382.
468
INDEX
FttmuBift Cftnal ZofD% GiuunteiiAiiio
■nperior to Key Wert fat infla-
enoe over, 128; nltimate zeteii-
tlon of« wiU d^end on fleeti
214; Monroe Doetrine has re-
enlfeed in oontrol, admlnlefam-
tion, and military protootion of,
804; an adyanoed baae, if doly
fortified, 820; is to be fortiiied,
870.
Ftoie, 04, 06, 147, 160, 161.
Ftasagesi cm what their Talnes de-
pend, 800, 810.
Fbninmdar War, 64, 241.
Ftasaoola, 128, 814, 816^ 810, 820.
Philadelphia, 170.
Fhilipebaig and Breiaaoh, oom-
pared to Ciodad Bodrigo and
Badajoi, as to positions, 64.
Flombino, 77, 78.
Flema, importanoe of the position
of, in the oampaign (2e 1877,
8^-88.
Plymouth, 104 ; battle off, 71.
Political Courage, Nelson's saying,
21; trast be bssed on political
knowledge, 21.
Politics, External. See Intern a-
TiONAL Conditions.
Popular Apprehension, 04, 95,
147, 160, 161.
Port Arthur, illustrates, by posi-
tion assumed by Japanese fleet,
that principle of strategy is not
changed, but that application of
it is affected, by torpedoes and
mines, 3; compared to Plevna
and Toulon as to position, 87, 38 ;
defenses of, permitted tenure
by much smaller number of men
than employed in the attack, 79,
149 ; defense of, gained time for
the Russians, 96, 142, 192; siege
of, illustrations furnished by,
141, 143, 144; Russian mines
at, 156; problem of getting the
Bossian fleet oot oi, 168; and
YladiTostol^ lelativa iHn^tttrnt
of, 170 ; was the Malta of BnaaU
and the Mantna of Ji^aii, 188;
and Vladivostok, as two baaea
for fleet, 201, 886; wi^ the
l^ifffiffm fleet was statJonsd ai^
806-800; the movements of ihm
fleet of (cQsenssion), 404--I08;
lesnlt of ineiBdent action of
fleet of, 418, 414; movementaof
426-427; important part played
by, in tlM BnssoJapanese War,
480; whatwonldprobai^yliaia
happened if the Bnssians liad
ooooentrated at Yladlvostek in-
stead of at, 480-442; an esssn-
tial fsatora of the Bwdaa
seheme, 444; the foree it oost
Japan, 444; played the paiitbat
Genoa pli^ hi 1800^ 444^ 446;
its resistance afleeted baigainin^
power of Japan, 446.
P6rt Castries, 14a
Port Mahon, as a base, 04.
Pbrt Orohaid, Pnget Sound, 154,
168.
Port Royal, 140.
Porto Longone, 70.
Ports, strategic yaloe o^ on
what it depends, 182-140; front
and rear of, 141; defensiye
strength of, 141-153; commer-
cial^ fortification of, should be
on sea-front only, 144, 146; un-
fortified, bombardment of, for-
bidden, 146; offensive strength
of, 163-163 ; the emergence ^ a
fleet from, 156-169; with two
outlets, 158^ 159 ; of retreat, ad-
vantage of two on same frontier,
168, 169 ; of retreat, Chesapeake
Bay and New York, 169, 170;
Vladivostok and Port Arthur,
170, 171 ; of a maritime frontier.
INDEX
469
should be safe and rapid com-
miiDioation between, 171 ; prin-
ciples which should govern the
selection and preparation of a
fortified, 191-195; development
of Great Britain's system of
military, 198, 194; considera-
tions regarding those of the
United States, 195-198; second-
ary bases, should be two in a
theatre of war, 200; blockade
of, may be surest way of bring-
ing fleet within reach, 271, 272;
fortified, illustration of value of
(Jamaica), 862, 868. See Ad-
vAircBD Front, Advanced Po-
sition, Bases, Lines, Strate-
gic Lines, Strategic Points.
Positions, importance of, 86-88,
127 ; war a business of, 86, 127,
160, 191, 802, 819, 867; too
many, a source of weakness,
127 ; flanking, 209, 210, 228. See
Advanced Front, Advanced
Position, Bases, Caribbean
8ea, Mexico (Gulf of). Lines,
Ports, Strategic Lines,
Strategic Points.
Principles, of naval strategy, are
unchangeable, 2-9 ; statement
of, must be supported by expe-
rience, 9; and illustration, 9-12,
16, 17, 818, 819; the necessity
for the study and establishment
of, 118-121; maxims of war,
developments and applications
of general, 800.
Puerto Rico^ 268, 881, 882, 840,
841,844.
Pnget Sound, 154, 158, 820.
Pursuit, of a retreating fleets con-
duct of, 26^-273.
j^rrenees, Peace of the, 81.
Quebec, 194.
Raiding Operations, character-
istics of, 180, 880, 402.
Raleigh, Sir Walter, 81.
Ram, disappearance of, from con-
sideration, 2, 155.
Ranke, Leopold von, quoted on
European conditions between
1500 and 1700, 29; on the im-
portance of the Mediterranean
in the war of 1689-1697, 89; on
unity of conduct, 417.
Ratisbon, 22, 28.
Rear, attack on, of a column of
ships, is a flank attack, 47-49.
Refusing, defined, 45.
Reserve, the value of, 7-9, 161.
Resources, strategic value of a
position depends upon, 182-184,
195; what they are, 162, 168,
195, 196.
Retreat, line of, generally repre-
sented by line of communica-
tions, 167; the advantage of
having two ports of, 168, 169;
Chesapeake Bay and New York,
ports of, 169, 170; must take
place, when inferior to the en-
emy, 287; when outer line of
fortified ports has been reached
in, 290, 291.
Rhine, the, a curtain, 171.
Richelieu, looked upon as the real
father of the French navy, 40;
his distribution of the French
navy, 40-42; his policy, 41 ; his
failure to concentrate, 48, 44;
founded his external policy on
internal consolidation, 84-86.
Risks, to demand exemption from,
a demoralizing attitude, 148;
Napoleon*s dictum that war
cannot be made without, 282,
480 ; taken by Japanese in war
with Russia, 422, 428-480; the
two questions in case of, 481;
Nelson on, 481,
470
INDEX
BodgflfB, Gommodtne Jobiiy 9i9^
250, 20a,29i.
BodDeji Admiral, on tiie adTan*
tiige of PoArto Riocs M a Btawfe^i^
point, 183; praetiaed steering in-
ditieetly fcnr a pdnt» to etnde the
enemy, 186; hie eejing that the
navy cannot be io foroe ersry-
yfhm, 178; Jamaiea saved by
Tictory of, 190; at Santa Lnd%
864.
Bomansy^th^ method of fighting
on sh^ 227 note.
Bosyth, new base of EngOsh navy
at, 125, 206.
Bonodabont Lines, part played by,
in naval strategy, 88.
Boshestvens^, Admiral, feelings
of Togo before arrival of iieet of ,
56, 57 ; his mistake in over-eoal-
ing, 119, 228^ 411, 412, 417-420;
his eoone after leaving the
Saddle Islands, 164, 165; his
movement toward Vladiyoatok
a ratreat npon his home base,
167; experienced the disadvan-
tage of only one port of re-
treat, 168, 169; delayed by the
Russian goyemment, 268, 269;
inflaenced by Fleet in Being
theory, 398 ; entered area of war
at tlie Saddle Islands, 409 ; fac-
tors to be considered in judging
his errors in last days of com-
mand, 410-412; bis problem, to
reach Vladivostok before fight-
ing, 413, 414; bis course of
action discussed, 414-420 ; stra-
tegic situation that would have
existed, if his squadron had
arrived in time, before Port
Arthur and the fleet fell, 439-
444.
Russia, failed to master function
of reserve in Japanese War, 8,
9; results of her defeat in
Japaneae War, §, IM^ MM71 ;
fafled to fwneentiate in Japaoeaa
War, 11; kald baok by PlevBa
in 1877, 86-88;
tlona, 87, 88^ 188; her poaitfoQ
in Euopeas poBties, 101^ IMi
in Manehnriai 805-807; and
British trader 807; two prinel-
plea ol her piaeliae, liie For*
tress fleet and liie nset in Being
idea, 684, 886^ 891, 608; haa in-
dined to liie deftinsife, 888;
seems to havn designed to net
on the defansifn in Japamwe
War, 898-886; inlhieneed by
Fortress Fleet Idea to cB^de
fleets 894, 896^ 408; hsrlnefBeet-
ive oondnot of Japaneae War
proceeded £rooi deibotlva giaap
of prineiplesb 896^ 408; foia-
waroed of neoesalfy of haring
a fleet in tiie Faoiflo, 896^ 886;
inflnenoed to station flbet on de-
fensive at Fort Arthur bj For-
tress Fleet idea, 898^ 897, 408,
441; her fleet at Port Arthur
accomplished nothing, 897, 898;
had no purpose that a time of
fighting should be found, 404;
her action, in attempting to
transfer fleet from Port Arthur,
404-408; if, in the Japanese
War, she had concentrated her
fleet at Vladivostok, 439-442.
Russian Naval Greneral Staff, 392.
Russo-Japanese War, discussion
of, 383-431. See Rozhbstvek-
SKT, Russia.
Ruyter, Admiral, 71.
St. Thomas, 263, 821, 822, 344.
St. Vincent, battle of Cape, 47.
St. Vincent, Lord, 167, 159, 160,
185.
INDEX
471
Samana Bay, 822, 840, 843>845.
Sampson, Admiral, 341, 342.
San Antonio, Cape, 329, 836,
387.
San Francisco, 820.
San Joan, Puerto Rico, 343,,844.
Santa Lucia, 35&-361, 364.
Santiago de Cuba, 167, 168, 322,
326, 327, 332, 333.
Santo Domingo, 326.
Savoy. See Italy.
Science, and art, contrasted, 299.
Scouting, and wireless telegraphy,
3, 4, 137, 158, 159, 270, 271,
330, 831, 343, 853.
Sea, as frontier, 50; as central
position, 50, 89, 99; value of a
position on a narrow, or strait,
134, 135; the great interest of
nations in, is trade, 303; the
control of, often undecided, 255-
261.
Seacoast Works, when to be offen-
sive, and when defensive only,
249.
Sebastopol, 180, 190, 204.
Secession, War of the, 14, 15, 130,
196.
Semenoffy Captain, quoted, 410-
412.
Senate of United States, recom-
mendation of, to divide fleet, 6,
11.
Sherman, General, 16, 124.
Shipbuilding, not a' primary mili-
tary object in equipping a navy-
yard, 195.
Ship Design, unity of purpose,
necessary in, 44, 386.
Shoals, 172, 175.
Sicilian Expedition, the, of Athens,
222-230.
Situation, strategic value of, 98,
132-134, 160; depends upon
nearness to a sea route, 134, 135 ;
depends upon amount of trade!
that passes, 138-140. See War
(a business of positions).
Spain, her part in the struggle
between France and Austria in
the Thirty Years' War, 28-81,
34, 62; her navy in the war
with the United States, 39;
line of communication between
Genoa and, in 1630-1660, 42;
after the Dutch War to the death
of Cromwell, 78-82; in the War of
League of Augsburg, 1689-1697,
88-95 ; in the War of the Span-
ish Succession, 96-98 ; Marmont
in, in 1812, 244-246, 248.
Spanish-American War. See War.
Spanish Netherlands. See Bel-
OIUM.
Spanish Succession, War of. See
Wab.
Speed, of fleet, is speed of slowest
ship^ 289.
Sperry, Admiral, 6.
Squadron, Flying, in war with
Spain, 39, 278, 395, 842.
Squadrons, small, disappearance of
the peace system o^ 125.
Steam, introduction of, into naval
warfare, 114-119, 881.
Stoessel, General, 444, 445.
Strait, upon what depends the
strategic value of a, 309, 310.
Strategic Lines, the lines joining
strategic points, 164; those
which concern the communica-
tions the most important, 166;
of communications, are gen-
erally lines of retreat, 167;
example of, southern coast of
Cuba, 168 ; all fortified forts on
same sea frontier form, 171-173;
formed by stationing divisions
of fleet before enemy's dock'
yards, 182, 183. See Advanced
Front, Bases, Lines, Ports,
Strategic Poikts.
472
INDBZ
Statogio Fdlntiy fiie iaportenee
of potiesriag^ 187; the mora
ftdTsooed, the better, provided,
127; the Taloe of ftdvaooed,
fUnstrsted by Cabe» Key Weit,
sad Gkumtwiftmo^ 137, 198;
•n^me lumil insteaee ol ed-
vaaoed. In former timeB, tibe
Britiah blookade of Freneh
ports, 128; preeent ooneentr*-
tbn of Britkh betOeHeet an
Imten^eb 128, 120; general tmr
eoQ for taking advanced, 120;
British Islandl, as towards
Gennany, ooonpy advanced, 120,
180; particular cases of ad-
vanced, 180; Une of advanced,
reinforced, if continnoos by
land and extensive, 181; how
the seleetion of, should be
madfl^ 181; valne o^ depends
npon strength, dtuation, re-
sooroes, 182-184, 180; valne of,
depends vs^oo, nearness to sea
route, 184, 186, 180; fewer in
a given area on sea tiian on
land, 188; valne o^ affected by
amount of trade that passes,
188-140*; defensive strength of,
141-153; offensive strength of,
153-162 ; needs of, in respect
to resouroes, 162, 163; should
be obtained to some extent,
200; on land, gain importance
from limit in number of avail-
able routes, 212, 213; in and
near the Gulf of Mexico and
the Caribbean Sea, 312-382.
See AovANCBD Front, Bases,
Lines, Ports, Strateoic
Lines.
Strategy, three elements of, cen-
tral position, interior lines, com-
munications, 31-33 ; has to take
account of international poli-
tics, 106, 107; tactical facilities]
andt Aeal^ttsa fill wnAsr aeoM
of; and ^fk^ VBUi feefii^[ily
nnderilss^ SIOl 8m Liun^
STEATMnr, Natal •vmAansr*
Strsogth, etialsgle valaa of i^
■^a^Bnekw ^^^p>#^pnnB^^p ^bbh^hm ^w^fc wUMii^^HiVF^g^
iSss DsrnmiTB SisHMtii^ Ctar-
Strang Flaesa. 8m BASHb Va»*
Sta^, mOltaiy, valne oL 12.
Snbmadae mom. li6-l«, U^
107,^8.
Snss, ronte by, an HhMfeatbn of
an interior Itas^ 8Ss aettaisitiiMi
o!, by Itoi^and, 88.
Sues Canal, a brldg% 8M»
Snffren, Admiral, Sffi, 279.
Snmter, Fort, 14.
Snppliss, i^Mifc tke wofd eahMesb
180, 181; aft sea, ftosl, ammo-
nitkm, food, 168; m$^ be smi
forward in lira iiafs, 211|
should not be eonesnlnfted iqpon
a single line, 212.
Surrender, when Jnstifled^ 418*
Sweden, in the TUrlgr Teaia*
War, 28, 62, 68.
Syracusans, the, their tactical
method of galley fighting, 227
note.
Syracuse, defeat of the Athe-
nians before, 222-280.
Tactics, land, how affected by
nature of the ground, 46.
Taft, President, on the Monroe
Doctrine, 110.
Tangier, at one time occupied by
England, 68, 83.
Termini, diefined, 185.
ITiirty Years' War, 27-31, 84, 40-
42, 62, 63.
Three-Mile Limit, the, 166.
Ticouderoga, 95.
INDEX
473
Togo, at Masampo, and earlier
with Kamimora, 62, 75; dealt
Baooessively with divisions of
Boflsian fleet, 66; nnoertainties
of his position, 65-67, 137, 272 ;
position of, compared with Nel-
son's, 187, 138; judidoQS choice
of his position, 165; did not
know which way Rozhestrensky
would oome, bat knew his des-
tination, 169 ; his signal to his
fleet at Tsushima, 214; in posi-
tion of pursuer at Tsushima, 268.
Torpedo, effect of, on warfare, 3.
Torpedo-vessels, 147, 148, 172,
397, 403.
Toulon, 37-39, 42, 87, 94, 97, 98.
Tourville, Admiral de, 91, 267.
Trade, amount of, as influencing
value of strategic points, 188,
139.
Trade Routes, through the Carib-
bean, points of convergence of,
303, 304.
Trafi^gar, Nelson's plan at, 47, 48.
Transit, in the Caribbean, an ele-
ment for strategic consideration,
361-356.
Transports, a tactical weakness in
batUe, 266, 266, 410-412, 417,
419.
Triple Alliance, the, 83, 104.
Triple Entente, the, 33, 104.
Tromp, Admiral, 72.
Tsushima, 57, 268, 278, 868, 898,
407, 413, 426, 427.
Tsushima Straits, 412.
Tunis, 123.
Turkey, political condition of, 122.
Turks, at Plevna, in 1877, 86-88.
Two-Power Standard, 54, 55.
Ulm, 22, 23, 149, 287.
Unionist Reveille, manifesto of,
870.
United States, proposed division of
fleet of, 6, 11, 39, 40, 52, 58, 75,
94, 114, 115, 222; relations of,
to other nations, an element of
national strate^, 18, 19, 305,
346, 363, 368 ; effect of popular
apprehension in war of, with
Spain, 39, 150, 295; impor-
tance of Straits of Florida to,
from a military standpoint, 51,
52 ; coast lines of , 51-53 ; impor-
tance of Panama Canal to, 53,
64; the One-Power standard the
minimum needed by, 64 (Great
Britain excepted from this stand-
ard, and why, 381, 332) ; interest
of, in the Caribbean Sea and the
Gulf of Mexico up to 1887, 100,
101 ; interest of, in the Isthmus
of Panama, 101, 102, 368, 869;
and Hay-Paunoef ote Treaty, 102,
105, 370 ; brought into concerns
of European nations as result of
Spanish War, 108; Great Brit-
ain's position in case of war be-
tween Japan and, 105; and the
Monroe Doctrine, 106, 107 {ue
MoNBOB Dootbinb); the Gez^
man navy a matter of importance
to, 109 ; interest of, in Caribbean
Sea and Gulf of Mexico to-day,
111, 804, 370, 377; acquisition
of Hawaiian Islands by, 123;
concentration of fleet of, to what
due, 125; considerations affect-
ing fortified bases of, 195-198;
policy of, toward Asiatic immi-
gration, 197; her base line in
the Gulf, 206, 314, 319, 372-377 ;
how supplies should be sent by, to
the Isthmus, 211, 212 ; in posses-
sionof Culebra and Guantanamo,
814, 315, 377-379; advantage
to, of controlling Windward
Passage, 328; cannot afford
to be overpassed in predomi^
474
INDEX
nanos of nml straDgtti hj any
•tftte ezoept Orail Britidii, SSI,
882; a&d Qrmi Britain, peaoe
betweniii naoma aararad, 882 ; the
pamuuMiit adnuitaga o!, in the
Wa0tliidiee,846; pdiajof,with
i^gaxd to Samana Bay, 848; in-
tmat o^ in Eoropaan pottttoy
iUortraled by oaae of Jamaica,
888; na7yof,inl887,889; naify
of; toHii^, 870; position d, in
Gnlf of Mazioo and Caribbaan
Sea in 1887 and now, oontraatad,
871^881; altiumgh with littla
ah^ping in foreign trade, needs
a nnmerofia and eflleient navy,
447.
Utreoht, Peaoe of, cAeot on Buo-
peaa and Atneriean foton^ 90^
88.
Yav, altadc on, aotoalfy an attack
on flank of a lin% disgnssodi 47-
48.
Valtelline FlMses, in te Tidrty
Yean' War, 28, 81; anak^ to
Isthmos of Panama, 101, 102.
Verona, 187, 261, 262, 276, 285.
Vladivostok, Togo knew Rozhest-
▼ensky was bound to, 169 ; and
Port Arthur, their situation with
relation to each other and to
Korea, 170; and Port Arthur,
as two bases, 201, 335; Russian
fleet better in, than in Port
Arthur, if intending to postpone
or decline battle, 292 ; not hope-
lessly closed by ioe during
winter, 396; possessed advan-
tage for fleet on offensive, 896;
fleet, if concentrated at, would
have declared that fortress was
subsidiary to fleet, 398; squad-
ron of, 402, 405, 408, 426, 427;
the point for uniting with main
fleets 'dtesnaaad,
vaa^r^ attanq^ to veaob, 401^
421; piobabiypieteaUaftoBort
Artlnir.for oonoanHatloB, 480;
what would probiM^liapa b^-
pened if Ilia Bnasiana had oow
oantrated al, 488-443.
Von der QMm, Genenl, qaoto^
20^107.
<<Wab, aboaineaioCporflloni^'Sa^
127, 180^ 181, 808, 818, 887.
War between OUna and Japan^ ^
116 ; between te United Stafeea
and Spain, 4,88, 40,182, 108, lU^
814, 841-848; between J^^
and BttMia, 4^ 8, % 11, Ufl^
888^481 ; between Oieaft Bittain
and liie Boer Bepnblioa, 4; d
the Seoenkm, 14^ 16^ 180, 188;
Thirty Teaia% 87-81, 84^ 88, 88;
of 1818, 60, 848, 860; Feninsii.
bur, 64, 841 ; between tiie Sng^
Hsh and Dnteh (186»-1864), 87-
74; of League oi. Angabnif
(1680-1807), 88-88; of the Span-
ish Succession, 96^8; of the
French Revolutioti and £mpire
(1793-1815), 251 ; of American
Independence, 261, 262.
War, object of, may not be the
object of the military plan, 208,
204 ; art of, consists in oonyert-
ing inferiority into superiority
at a given point, 296, 297 ; ex-
perience lies at the basis qf , 297;
Jomini says that the successful
conduct of, is an art, 299; max-
ims of, are the developments
and applications of a few general
principles, 800.
Warfare, changes by which con-
duct of, has been affected, 2-^;
importance of positions in, 86,
76, 87, 92 (see Positions, Fob-
INDEX
476
TRSSSSSy Bases); land, part
played in, by conditions of
groundy 46, 46 ; frontier in, 40, 60 ;
maritime, frontier in, 60 ; land,
of value to the naval student, 121.
Waterloo, Wellington at, 46.
Weapons, changes in, 2-4.
Wellington, D^kB of, at Waterloo,
46 ; the sea the security of, 60 ;
quoted on the American Lakes,
99; in Spain, 244-246.
West Indies, 802-882.
Westphalia, Peace of, 68.
William III., of England, in war
of 1689-1697, 91-96; death of,
97; navy became fully differen-
tiated ttom army under, 118;
Ranke*s remark concerning, 417.
Windward Islands, 140, 864.
Windward Passage, mentioned in
treatment, 308-876; illustration
of its decisive strategic impor-
tance, 341.
Wireless Telegraphy, and scouting,
8, 4, 137, 158, 169, 270, 271, 330,
881, 843, 368.
Wolfe, James, habit of comment-
ing on movements at which he
was present as a subordinate,
10.
Wolseley, Lord, quoted on the
American War of Secession, 10»
11.
Wood, General, 144.
Yellow Sea, 426.
Yucatan Passage, mentioned
treatment, 810-867.
Yucatan Peninsula, 849.
m
WORKS BY CAPTAIN A. T. MA HAN
THE INFLUENCE OF SEA POWER UPON HISTORY.
1660-1783. With 25 charts. 8vo. $4.00 n^^.
KMterfnl in ooiMtnMtl<m and aobolarty in •nention. — The Critic.
THE INFLUENCE OF SEA POWER UPON THE FRENCH
REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. With 13 maps and battle
plans. 2 vols. Svo. $6.00 net.
A book whioh found! Anoiraohoolof nrnwl biaiorioal wxitlnff.— PoUUcal Science Quarm
ierip,
SEA POWER IN ITS RELATIONS TO THE WAR OF
1812. With maps^ battle plans^ and 25 full-page plates. 2
vols. 8vo. $8.00 net.
ATiloablo oontribution on the inbjeet of "lliolnflntticeof SeaPowor upon HSatory.**
THE INTEREST OF AMERICA IN SEA POWER PRES-
ENT AND FUTURE. With 2 maps. Crown 8 vo. $2.00 n«/.
Tho faboUnoe of all theae aaiaja oonoerna ovaiy intelligwit TO^eiT,—The Boston Herald,
THE LIFE OF NELSON. With 19 plates and 21 maps and
battle plans. 2 vols. 8vo. $8.00 net.
O^itain Mahan haa written the beat of all naral blograpbiea, about the greataat of all
aaa oaptafaia. — Hbodou Booaamur in The Bockmat^
THE LIFE OF NELSON. Popular Edition. With 13 plates.
One volume. Crown 8vo. 750 pages. $3.00 nd.
TYPES OF NAVAL OFFICERS. With 6 photogravure por-
traits. 8vo. $3.00 net.
We ahould be loieTer grateful that a man of Captain liahan'a intellectual foroe haa
ehoeen to giro hia powera to wrttina of the Uvea and work of the oaptaina and admirala
of our race. . . . — Aew York Times.
LESSONS OF THE WAR WITH SPAIN. Crown 8vo. $2.00 net.
A moat admirable review of the war with Spain. The leaaona deduced are bctii
impreeaire and rationaL — Detroit JounuU.
THE PROBLEM OF ASIA. Crown 8vo. $2.00 net.
Faaoinatlng in ita intereat and inTaluaUe aa a phJloaophloal statement of the greateal
faktemational problem the world haa faced for many a ytax. — 8t. Paml PioneerPreu
RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT. Crown 8vo. $2.00 net.
B^ papera dealing larvely with the broad field of world poUoieik which bear marks
of captam kahan*B aoholar^ attainment and Uteraiy akilL— Aew York Press.
SOME NEGLECTED ASPECTS OF WAR. $2.00 net.
Two of the papera in thia book praotkallj orertnmed pubUc aentiment in England.—
Pnvidonoo Joufnai-
NAVAL ADMINISTRATION AND WARFARE. 92.00 net.
Illuminating' eaaaja. Wiae auggeatlon and patriotic inatmction find place on nearty
every page of thia Taluable book.— PAOada^pMa North Americtm.
THE HARVEST WITHIN. Being Thoughts on the life of
the Christian. 12mo. $1.50 net.
THE INTEREST OF AMERICA IN INTERNATIONAL
CONDITIONS. 12ino. $1.50 net.
A ftody of international rdatlona and ttiair bearing i^on ^— ^******» intereata.
NAVAL STRATEGY. 8vo. $S.50 net.
The oondariona of a lifetime*B etody of the rabijeet.
LITTLE, BROWN, & CO., PoBLisaEEs, BOSTON
I
/
Live Music
Archive
Librivox
Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland
Museum of Art
Internet
Arcade
Console Living Room
Open Library
American
Libraries
TV News
Understanding
9/11